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Radical feminism: Difference between revisions
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Radical feminists helped to translate the radical protest for racial equality, in which many had experience, over to the struggle for women's rights. They took up the cause and advocated for a variety of women's issues, including [[abortion rights]], the [[Equal Rights Amendment]], access to credit, and equal pay.{{sfn|Evans|2002}} Many women of color were among the founders of the Women's Liberation Movment ([[Frances M. Beal|Fran Beal]], [[Cellestine Ware,]] [[Toni Cade Bambara]]); however, women of color in general did not participate in the movement due to their conclusion that radical feminists were not addressing "issues of meaning for minority women", [[Black women]] in particular.{{sfn|Linden-Ward|Green|1993|p=434}} After [[consciousness raising]] groups were formed to rally support, second-wave radical feminism began to see an increasing number of women of color participating. | Radical feminists helped to translate the radical protest for racial equality, in which many had experience, over to the struggle for women's rights. They took up the cause and advocated for a variety of women's issues, including [[abortion rights]], the [[Equal Rights Amendment]], access to credit, and equal pay.{{sfn|Evans|2002}} Many women of color were among the founders of the Women's Liberation Movment ([[Frances M. Beal|Fran Beal]], [[Cellestine Ware,]] [[Toni Cade Bambara]]); however, women of color in general did not participate in the movement due to their conclusion that radical feminists were not addressing "issues of meaning for minority women", [[Black women]] in particular.{{sfn|Linden-Ward|Green|1993|p=434}} After [[consciousness raising]] groups were formed to rally support, second-wave radical feminism began to see an increasing number of women of color participating. | ||
In the 1960s, radical feminism emerged within liberal feminist and working-class feminist discussions, first in the United States, then in the United Kingdom and [[Australia]]. Those involved had gradually come to believe that it was not only the [[middle-class]] [[nuclear family]] that oppressed women, but that it was also social movements and organizations that claimed to stand for human liberation, notably the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]], the [[New Left]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] political parties, all of which were male-dominated and male-oriented. In the United States, radical feminism developed as a response to some of the perceived failings of both [[New Left]] organizations such as the [[Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)|Students for a Democratic Society]] (SDS) and feminist organizations such as NOW.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Initially concentrated in big cities like [[New York City|New York]], [[Chicago]], [[Boston]], Washington, DC, and on the West Coast,{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=118}} | In the 1960s, radical feminism emerged within liberal feminist and working-class feminist discussions, first in the United States, then in the United Kingdom and [[Australia]]. Those involved had gradually come to believe that it was not only the [[middle-class]] [[nuclear family]] that oppressed women, but that it was also social movements and organizations that claimed to stand for human liberation, notably the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]], the [[New Left]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] political parties, all of which were male-dominated and male-oriented. In the United States, radical feminism developed as a response to some of the perceived failings of both [[New Left]] organizations such as the [[Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)|Students for a Democratic Society]] (SDS) and feminist organizations such as NOW.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Initially concentrated in big cities like [[New York City|New York]], [[Chicago]], [[Boston]], Washington, DC, and on the West Coast,{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=118}}<ref group=note>Willis (1984) doesn't mention Chicago, but as early as 1967 Chicago was a major site for consciousness-raising and home of the ''Voice of Women's Liberation Movement''; see Kate Bedford and Ara Wilson [http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/wilson935/chrono1.htm Lesbian Feminist Chronology: 1963-1970] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717042308/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/wilson935/chrono1.htm |date=17 July 2007}}.</ref> radical feminist groups spread across the country rapidly from 1968 to 1972. | ||
At the same time parallel trends of thinking developed outside the USA: The Women’s Yearbook<ref>The essay on "Feminist Tendencies" in the Women's Yearbook (Frauenjahrbuch '76), published by the new Frauenoffensive press in Munich and edited by a work group of the Munich Women’s Center in Myra Marx Ferree: Varieties of Feminism German Gender Politics in Global Perspective (2012) p.60 {{ISBN|978-0-8047-5759-1}}</ref> from Munich gives a good sense of early 1970s feminism in West Germany: | At the same time parallel trends of thinking developed outside the USA: The Women’s Yearbook<ref>The essay on "Feminist Tendencies" in the Women's Yearbook (Frauenjahrbuch '76), published by the new Frauenoffensive press in Munich and edited by a work group of the Munich Women’s Center in Myra Marx Ferree: Varieties of Feminism German Gender Politics in Global Perspective (2012) p.60 {{ISBN|978-0-8047-5759-1}}</ref> from Munich gives a good sense of early 1970s feminism in West Germany: | ||
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[[File:MacKinnon.8May.CambridgeMA.png|thumb|[[Catharine MacKinnon]]]] | [[File:MacKinnon.8May.CambridgeMA.png|thumb|[[Catharine MacKinnon]]]] | ||
Radical feminists, notably [[Catharine MacKinnon]], charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological, and/or economic [[coercion]] of the women who perform and model in it. This is said to be true even when the women are presented as enjoying themselves. | Radical feminists, notably [[Catharine MacKinnon]], charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological, and/or economic [[coercion]] of the women who perform and model in it. This is said to be true even when the women are presented as enjoying themselves.<ref group=note>MacKinnon (1989): "Sex forced on real women so that it can be sold at a profit to be forced on other real women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into things to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and this presented as the nature of women; the coercion that is visible and the coercion that has become invisible—this and more grounds the feminist concern with pornography."{{sfn|MacKinnon|1989|p=196}}</ref><ref>MacKinnon, Catherine A. (1984). "Not a moral issue". ''Yale Law and Policy Review'' 2:321-345.</ref><ref name="pbs.org">{{Cite episode| title = A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)| series = [[Think Tank]]|network= PBS| year = 1995| url = https://www.pbs.org/thinktank/transcript215.html}}</ref><ref name=stanford-shrage>Shrage, Laurie (13 July 2007). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-sex-markets/#Por "Feminist Perspectives on Sex Markets: Pornography"]. In ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''.</ref> It is also argued that much of what is shown in pornography is abusive by its very nature. [[Gail Dines]] holds that pornography, exemplified by [[Point of view pornography|gonzo pornography]], is becoming increasingly violent and that women who perform in pornography are brutalized in the process of its production.<ref group=note>Dines (2008): "The porn that makes most of the money for the industry is actually the gonzo, body-punishing variety that shows women's bodies being physically stretched to the limit, humiliated and degraded. Even porn industry people commented in a recent article in Adult Video News, that gonzo porn is taking its toll on the women, and the turnover is high because they can't stand the brutal acts on the body for very long." See: {{cite web| last1 = Dines| first1 = Gail| title = Penn, Porn and Me| work = [[CounterPunch]]| date = 23 June 2008| url = http://www.counterpunch.org/dines06232008.html| url-status = dead| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090330143944/http://www.counterpunch.org/dines06232008.html| archivedate = 30 March 2009}}</ref><ref>Dines, Gail. (24 March 2007). "[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5003155114018800220# Pornography & Pop Culture: Putting the Text in Context]", ''Pornography & Pop Culture - Rethinking Theory, Reframing Activism''. Wheelock College, Boston, 24 March 2007.</ref> | ||
Radical feminists point to the testimony of well known participants in pornography, such as [[Traci Lords]] and [[Linda Boreman]], and argue that most female performers are coerced into pornography, either by somebody else, or by an unfortunate set of circumstances. The feminist anti-pornography movement was galvanized by the publication of ''Ordeal'', in which Linda Boreman (who under the name of "Linda Lovelace" had starred in ''[[Deep Throat (film)|Deep Throat]]'') stated that she had been beaten, raped, and [[pimp]]ed by her husband [[Chuck Traynor]], and that Traynor had forced her at gunpoint to make scenes in ''Deep Throat'', as well as forcing her, by use of both physical violence against Boreman as well as emotional abuse and outright threats of violence, to make other pornographic films. Dworkin, MacKinnon, and Women Against Pornography issued public statements of support for Boreman, and worked with her in public appearances and speeches.<ref>Brownmiller, ''In Our Time'', p. 337.</ref> | Radical feminists point to the testimony of well known participants in pornography, such as [[Traci Lords]] and [[Linda Boreman]], and argue that most female performers are coerced into pornography, either by somebody else, or by an unfortunate set of circumstances. The feminist anti-pornography movement was galvanized by the publication of ''Ordeal'', in which Linda Boreman (who under the name of "Linda Lovelace" had starred in ''[[Deep Throat (film)|Deep Throat]]'') stated that she had been beaten, raped, and [[pimp]]ed by her husband [[Chuck Traynor]], and that Traynor had forced her at gunpoint to make scenes in ''Deep Throat'', as well as forcing her, by use of both physical violence against Boreman as well as emotional abuse and outright threats of violence, to make other pornographic films. Dworkin, MacKinnon, and Women Against Pornography issued public statements of support for Boreman, and worked with her in public appearances and speeches.<ref>Brownmiller, ''In Our Time'', p. 337.</ref> | ||
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Some radical feminists, such as [[Catharine MacKinnon]] and [[John Stoltenberg]] have supported the notion that [[transwomen]] are women, which has been described as ''trans-inclusive'' feminism,<ref name="Abeni">{{cite web|last1=Abeni|first1=Cleis|title=New History Project Unearths Radical Feminism's Trans-Affirming Roots|url=http://www.advocate.com/think-trans/2016/2/03/new-history-project-unearths-radical-feminisms-trans-affirming-roots|accessdate=10 June 2017|work=The Advocate|date=3 February 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name=TransAdvocate>{{Cite web|last1=Williams|first1=Cristan|title=Sex, Gender, and Sexuality: The TransAdvocate interviews Catharine A. MacKinnon|url=http://www.transadvocate.com/sex-gender-and-sexuality-the-transadvocate-interviews-catharine-a-mackinnon_n_15037.htm|website=TransAdvocate|date=April 7, 2015|accessdate=14 January 2016}}</ref><ref name=WilliamsTSQ>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=Cristan|title=Radical Inclusion: Recounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism|journal=Transgender Studies Quarterly|date=May 2016|volume=3|issue=1–2|doi=10.1215/23289252-3334463|issn=2328-9252}}</ref> while the vast majority, most notably [[Mary Daly]], [[Janice Raymond]], [[Robin Morgan]], [[Germaine Greer]], [[Sheila Jeffreys]], [[Julie Bindel]], and [[Robert W. Jensen|Robert Jensen]], have argued that the transgender movement perpetuates patriarchal gender norms and is incompatible with radical-feminist ideology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Mary |title=Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism |date=1978 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |location=Boston |edition=1990 |isbn=978-0807015100 |lccn= 78053790 |url=https://archive.org/details/gynecologymetae000daly}}</ref><ref name="newyorker"/><ref name=Pomerleau>{{cite book|last1=Pomerleau|first1=Clark A.|title=Califia Women: Feminist Education against Sexism, Classism, and Racism|date=2013|pages=28–29|chapter=1|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|location=Austin, Texas|isbn=978-0292752948}}</ref><ref name=Jensen2015>{{cite web|last1=Jensen|first1=Robert|title=A transgender problem for diversity politics|url=http://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/latest-columns/20150605-robert-jensen-a-transgender-problem-for-diversity-politics.ece|accessdate=November 20, 2015|work=The Dallas Morning News|date=June 5, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Forbes">{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/peterjreilly/2013/06/15/cathy-brennan-on-radfem-2013/ | title=Cathy Brennan On Radfem 2013 | work=Forbes | date=15 June 2013|first1= Peter J.|last1=Reilly}}</ref> | Some radical feminists, such as [[Catharine MacKinnon]] and [[John Stoltenberg]] have supported the notion that [[transwomen]] are women, which has been described as ''trans-inclusive'' feminism,<ref name="Abeni">{{cite web|last1=Abeni|first1=Cleis|title=New History Project Unearths Radical Feminism's Trans-Affirming Roots|url=http://www.advocate.com/think-trans/2016/2/03/new-history-project-unearths-radical-feminisms-trans-affirming-roots|accessdate=10 June 2017|work=The Advocate|date=3 February 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name=TransAdvocate>{{Cite web|last1=Williams|first1=Cristan|title=Sex, Gender, and Sexuality: The TransAdvocate interviews Catharine A. MacKinnon|url=http://www.transadvocate.com/sex-gender-and-sexuality-the-transadvocate-interviews-catharine-a-mackinnon_n_15037.htm|website=TransAdvocate|date=April 7, 2015|accessdate=14 January 2016}}</ref><ref name=WilliamsTSQ>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=Cristan|title=Radical Inclusion: Recounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism|journal=Transgender Studies Quarterly|date=May 2016|volume=3|issue=1–2|doi=10.1215/23289252-3334463|issn=2328-9252}}</ref> while the vast majority, most notably [[Mary Daly]], [[Janice Raymond]], [[Robin Morgan]], [[Germaine Greer]], [[Sheila Jeffreys]], [[Julie Bindel]], and [[Robert W. Jensen|Robert Jensen]], have argued that the transgender movement perpetuates patriarchal gender norms and is incompatible with radical-feminist ideology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Mary |title=Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism |date=1978 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |location=Boston |edition=1990 |isbn=978-0807015100 |lccn= 78053790 |url=https://archive.org/details/gynecologymetae000daly}}</ref><ref name="newyorker"/><ref name=Pomerleau>{{cite book|last1=Pomerleau|first1=Clark A.|title=Califia Women: Feminist Education against Sexism, Classism, and Racism|date=2013|pages=28–29|chapter=1|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|location=Austin, Texas|isbn=978-0292752948}}</ref><ref name=Jensen2015>{{cite web|last1=Jensen|first1=Robert|title=A transgender problem for diversity politics|url=http://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/latest-columns/20150605-robert-jensen-a-transgender-problem-for-diversity-politics.ece|accessdate=November 20, 2015|work=The Dallas Morning News|date=June 5, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Forbes">{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/peterjreilly/2013/06/15/cathy-brennan-on-radfem-2013/ | title=Cathy Brennan On Radfem 2013 | work=Forbes | date=15 June 2013|first1= Peter J.|last1=Reilly}}</ref> | ||
Those who exclude trans women from womanhood or women's spaces refer to themselves as ''gender critical''<ref name="Goldberg 2015">{{cite web |last1=Goldberg |first1=Michelle |title=The Trans Women Who Say That Trans Women Aren't Women |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2015/12/gender-critical-trans-women-the-apostates-of-the-trans-rights-movement.html |accessdate=12 April 2019 |magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Flaherty 2018">{{cite web |last1=Flaherty |first1=Colleen |title='TERF' War |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/29/philosophers-object-journals-publication-terf-reference-some-feminists-it-really |accessdate=12 April 2019 |website=[[Inside Higher Ed]] |date=29 August 2018}}</ref> and are referred to by others as trans-exclusionary.<ref name="Compton">{{cite web |last1=Compton |first1=Julie |title='Pro-lesbian' or 'trans-exclusionary'? Old animosities boil into public view |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/pro-lesbian-or-trans-exclusionary-old-animosities-boil-public-view-n958456 |accessdate=12 April 2019 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=14 January 2019}}</ref> Radical feminists in particular who exclude trans women are often referred to as "[[Feminist views on transgender topics#The term "TERF"|trans-exclusionary radical feminists]]" or "[[TERF]]s",<ref name="Flaherty 2018" /><ref name="Goldberg 2015" /><ref name="Compton"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Cristan |date=2016-05-01 |title=Radical InclusionRecounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism |journal=[[Transgender Studies Quarterly]] |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1–2 |pages=254–258 |doi=10.1215/23289252-3334463 |issn=2328-9252}}</ref> an acronym to which they object,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2015/02/are-you-now-or-have-you-ever-been-terf|title=Are you now or have you ever been a TERF? |last1=MacDonald |first1=Terry |date=16 February 2015 |magazine=[[New Statesman|New Statesman America]]}}</ref> say is inaccurate (citing, for example, their inclusion of [[trans men]] as women),<ref name="Flaherty 2018" /> and argue is a [[pejorative|slur]] or even [[hate speech]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Michelle |title=What Is a Woman? |journal=[[The New Yorker]] |date=4 August 2014 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/08/04/woman-2 |accessdate=November 20, 2015 |quote=TERF stands for “trans-exclusionary radical feminist.” The term can be useful for making a distinction with radical feminists who do not share the same position, but those at whom it is directed consider it a slur.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.feministcurrent.com/2017/09/21/terf-isnt-slur-hate-speech/ |title='TERF' isn't just a slur, it's hate speech |last1=Murphy |first1=Meghan E. |publisher=Feminist Current |date=September 21, 2017 |quote=If “TERF” were a term that conveyed something purposeful, accurate, or useful, beyond simply smearing, silencing, insulting, discriminating against, or inciting violence, it could perhaps be considered neutral or harmless. But because the term itself is politically dishonest and misrepresentative, and because its intent is to vilify, disparage, and intimidate, as well as to incite and justify violence against women, it is dangerous and indeed qualifies as a form of hate speech. While women have tried to point out that this would be the end result of “TERF” before, they were, as usual, dismissed. We now have undeniable proof that painting women with this brush leads to real, physical violence. If you didn’t believe us before, you now have no excuse.}}</ref> These feminists argue that because trans women are [[Sex assignment|assigned male at birth]], they are accorded corresponding privileges in society, and even if they choose to present as women, the fact that they have a choice in this sets them apart from people assigned female. Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary radical feminists in particular say that the difference in behavior between men and women is the result of socialization. [[Lierre Keith]] describes femininity as "a set of behaviors that are, in essence, ritualized submission", | Those who exclude trans women from womanhood or women's spaces refer to themselves as ''gender critical''<ref name="Goldberg 2015">{{cite web |last1=Goldberg |first1=Michelle |title=The Trans Women Who Say That Trans Women Aren't Women |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2015/12/gender-critical-trans-women-the-apostates-of-the-trans-rights-movement.html |accessdate=12 April 2019 |magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Flaherty 2018">{{cite web |last1=Flaherty |first1=Colleen |title='TERF' War |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/29/philosophers-object-journals-publication-terf-reference-some-feminists-it-really |accessdate=12 April 2019 |website=[[Inside Higher Ed]] |date=29 August 2018}}</ref> and are referred to by others as trans-exclusionary.<ref name="Compton">{{cite web |last1=Compton |first1=Julie |title='Pro-lesbian' or 'trans-exclusionary'? Old animosities boil into public view |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/pro-lesbian-or-trans-exclusionary-old-animosities-boil-public-view-n958456 |accessdate=12 April 2019 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=14 January 2019}}</ref> Radical feminists in particular who exclude trans women are often referred to as "[[Feminist views on transgender topics#The term "TERF"|trans-exclusionary radical feminists]]" or "[[TERF]]s",<ref name="Flaherty 2018" /><ref name="Goldberg 2015" /><ref name="Compton"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Cristan |date=2016-05-01 |title=Radical InclusionRecounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism |journal=[[Transgender Studies Quarterly]] |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1–2 |pages=254–258 |doi=10.1215/23289252-3334463 |issn=2328-9252}}</ref> an acronym to which they object,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2015/02/are-you-now-or-have-you-ever-been-terf|title=Are you now or have you ever been a TERF? |last1=MacDonald |first1=Terry |date=16 February 2015 |magazine=[[New Statesman|New Statesman America]]}}</ref> say is inaccurate (citing, for example, their inclusion of [[trans men]] as women),<ref name="Flaherty 2018" /> and argue is a [[pejorative|slur]] or even [[hate speech]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Michelle |title=What Is a Woman? |journal=[[The New Yorker]] |date=4 August 2014 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/08/04/woman-2 |accessdate=November 20, 2015 |quote=TERF stands for “trans-exclusionary radical feminist.” The term can be useful for making a distinction with radical feminists who do not share the same position, but those at whom it is directed consider it a slur.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.feministcurrent.com/2017/09/21/terf-isnt-slur-hate-speech/ |title='TERF' isn't just a slur, it's hate speech |last1=Murphy |first1=Meghan E. |publisher=Feminist Current |date=September 21, 2017 |quote=If “TERF” were a term that conveyed something purposeful, accurate, or useful, beyond simply smearing, silencing, insulting, discriminating against, or inciting violence, it could perhaps be considered neutral or harmless. But because the term itself is politically dishonest and misrepresentative, and because its intent is to vilify, disparage, and intimidate, as well as to incite and justify violence against women, it is dangerous and indeed qualifies as a form of hate speech. While women have tried to point out that this would be the end result of “TERF” before, they were, as usual, dismissed. We now have undeniable proof that painting women with this brush leads to real, physical violence. If you didn’t believe us before, you now have no excuse.}}</ref> These feminists argue that because trans women are [[Sex assignment|assigned male at birth]], they are accorded corresponding privileges in society, and even if they choose to present as women, the fact that they have a choice in this sets them apart from people assigned female. Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary radical feminists in particular say that the difference in behavior between men and women is the result of socialization. [[Lierre Keith]] describes femininity as "a set of behaviors that are, in essence, ritualized submission",<ref group=note>Keith (2013): "Female socialization is a process of psychologically constraining and breaking girls—otherwise known as 'grooming'—to create a class of compliant victims. Femininity is a set of behaviors that are, in essence, ritualized submission." See: {{cite web | url=http://www.counterpunch.org/2013/06/21/55123/ | title=The Emperor's New Penis | magazine=[[CounterPunch]] | date=21–23 June 2013 | author=Keith, Lierre}}</ref><ref name="newyorker"/> and hence, gender is not an identity but a caste position, and [[Gender identity|gender-identity]] politics are an obstacle to gender abolition.<ref name="newyorker" /><ref name="Forbes" /> [[Julie Bindel]] argued in 2008 that Iran carries out the highest number of sex-change operations in the world, because "surgery is an attempt to keep [[gender stereotypes]] intact", and that "it is precisely this idea that certain distinct behaviours are appropriate for males and females that underlies feminist criticism of the phenomenon of 'transgenderism'."<ref>[https://idgeofreason.wordpress.com/2013/09/12/2008-statement-from-julie-bindel/ "2008 Statement from Julie Bindel"], courtesy of idgeofreason.wordpress.com.</ref><ref name="CSOTP">{{cite web|last1=Grew |first1=Tony |title=Celebs split over trans protest at Stonewall Awards |url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-9523.html |work=[[PinkNews]] |date=7 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629093225/http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-9523.html |archivedate=June 29, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the BBC in 2014, there are no reliable figures regarding gender-reassignment operations in Iran.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hamedani|first1=Ali|title=The gay people pushed to change their gender|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29832690|work=BBC News|date=5 November 2014|quote=There is no reliable information on the number of gender reassignment operations carried out in Iran.}}</ref> | ||
In ''[[The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male]]'' (1979), the lesbian radical feminist [[Janice Raymond]] argued that "transsexuals ... reduce the female form to artefact, appropriating this body for themselves".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male|last1=Raymond|first1=Janice G.|date=1979|publisher=Teachers College Press|isbn=978-0807762721|location=New York|p=xx}}</ref> In ''The Whole Woman'' (1999), [[Germaine Greer]] wrote that largely male governments "recognise as women men who believe that they are women ... because [those governments] see women not as another sex but as a non-sex"; she continued that if uterus-and-ovaries transplants were a mandatory part of sex-change operations, the latter "would disappear overnight".<ref name="Greer2009">{{cite book|url=|title=The Whole Woman|author=Germaine Greer|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=1999|isbn=978-0-307-56113-8|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ymJArTm2CAIC&pg=PT101 101]}}</ref> [[Sheila Jeffreys]] argued in 1997 that "the vast majority of transsexuals still subscribe to the traditional [[stereotype]] of women" and that by [[transitioning (transgender)|transitioning]] they are "constructing a conservative fantasy of what women should be ... an essence of womanhood which is deeply insulting and restrictive."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jeffreys|first1=Sheila|year=1997|title=Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective|url=http://www.rapereliefshelter.bc.ca/sites/default/files/imce/Transgender%20Activism%20A%20Lesbian%20Feminist%20Perspective%20by%20Sheila%20Jeffreys%2C%20Journal%20of%20Lesbian%20Studies%201997%5B1%5D.pdf|journal=The Journal of Lesbian Studies|doi=10.1300/J155v01n03_03}}</ref> In ''Gender Hurts'' (2014), she referred to [[sex reassignment surgery]] as "self-mutilation",{{sfn|Jeffries|2014|pp=68–71}} and used pronouns that refer to biological sex. Jeffreys argued that feminists need to know "the biological sex of those who claim to be women and promote prejudicial versions of what constitutes womanhood", and that the "use by men of feminine pronouns conceals the masculine privilege bestowed upon them by virtue of having been placed in and brought up in the male sex caste".{{sfn|Jeffries|2014|p=9}}<ref name="newyorker" /> | In ''[[The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male]]'' (1979), the lesbian radical feminist [[Janice Raymond]] argued that "transsexuals ... reduce the female form to artefact, appropriating this body for themselves".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male|last1=Raymond|first1=Janice G.|date=1979|publisher=Teachers College Press|isbn=978-0807762721|location=New York|p=xx}}</ref> In ''The Whole Woman'' (1999), [[Germaine Greer]] wrote that largely male governments "recognise as women men who believe that they are women ... because [those governments] see women not as another sex but as a non-sex"; she continued that if uterus-and-ovaries transplants were a mandatory part of sex-change operations, the latter "would disappear overnight".<ref name="Greer2009">{{cite book|url=|title=The Whole Woman|author=Germaine Greer|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=1999|isbn=978-0-307-56113-8|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ymJArTm2CAIC&pg=PT101 101]}}</ref> [[Sheila Jeffreys]] argued in 1997 that "the vast majority of transsexuals still subscribe to the traditional [[stereotype]] of women" and that by [[transitioning (transgender)|transitioning]] they are "constructing a conservative fantasy of what women should be ... an essence of womanhood which is deeply insulting and restrictive."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jeffreys|first1=Sheila|year=1997|title=Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective|url=http://www.rapereliefshelter.bc.ca/sites/default/files/imce/Transgender%20Activism%20A%20Lesbian%20Feminist%20Perspective%20by%20Sheila%20Jeffreys%2C%20Journal%20of%20Lesbian%20Studies%201997%5B1%5D.pdf|journal=The Journal of Lesbian Studies|doi=10.1300/J155v01n03_03}}</ref> In ''Gender Hurts'' (2014), she referred to [[sex reassignment surgery]] as "self-mutilation",{{sfn|Jeffries|2014|pp=68–71}} and used pronouns that refer to biological sex. Jeffreys argued that feminists need to know "the biological sex of those who claim to be women and promote prejudicial versions of what constitutes womanhood", and that the "use by men of feminine pronouns conceals the masculine privilege bestowed upon them by virtue of having been placed in and brought up in the male sex caste".{{sfn|Jeffries|2014|p=9}}<ref name="newyorker" /> | ||
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== Notes == | == Notes == | ||
<references group=note/> | |||
== References == | == References == | ||