Transwomen in women's sports: differenze tra le versioni

Transwomen in women's sports (visualizza wikitesto)

Versione delle 04:46, 31 gen 2019

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→‎Physiological differences: formatting complete for this section

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 * Males have denser and therefore more durable bones on average<ref name="pmid16637873">Benjamin M, Toumi H, Ralphs JR, Bydder G, Best TM, Milz S (2006) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16637873 Where tendons and ligaments meet bone: attachment sites ('entheses') in relation to exercise and/or mechanical load.] ''J Anat'' 208 (4):471-90. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/16637873 16637873]</ref>
 * Males have stronger tendons and ligaments on average<ref name="pmid16637873" />
-* Males on avreage have greater total muscle mass<ref>http://jap.physiology.org/content/89/1/81</ref>
+* Males on avreage have greater total muscle mass<ref name="Janssen">Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Wang, Z., & Ross, R. (2000). [http://jap.physiology.org/content/89/1/81 Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr.] Journal of Applied Physiology, 89(1), 81-88. doi:10.1152/jappl.2000.89.1.81 </ref>
-* Males on average have a greater ratio of muscle mass to total body mass<ref>http://jap.physiology.org/content/89/1/81</ref>
+* Males on average have a greater ratio of muscle mass to total body mass<ref name="Janssen"/>
-* Males have about 56% greater lung volume relative to body mass<ref>Glucksman A (1981). Sexual Dimorphism in Human and Mammalian Biology and Pathology. Academic Press. pp. 66–75.</ref>
+* Males have about 56% greater lung volume relative to body mass<ref name="Glucksmann">Glucksmann, A. (1981). Sexual dimorphism in human and mammalian biology and pathology. London: Academic Press. pp. 66–75</ref>
-* Males have larger hearts, with 10% higher red blood cell count and higher haemoglobin, meaning greater oxygen carrying capacity, although the difference is less pronounced among athletes<ref>Glucksman A (1981). Sexual Dimorphism in Human and Mammalian Biology and Pathology. Academic Press. pp. 66–75.</ref>
+* Males have larger hearts, with 10% higher red blood cell count and higher haemoglobin, meaning greater oxygen carrying capacity, although the difference is less pronounced among athletes<ref name="Glucksmann"/>
-* Males have higher circulating "clotting factors" which allow for faster healing of wounds and higher peripheral pain tolerance<ref>Glucksman A (1981). Sexual Dimorphism in Human and Mammalian Biology and Pathology. Academic Press. pp. 66–75.</ref>
+* Males have higher circulating "clotting factors" which allow for faster healing of wounds and higher peripheral pain tolerance<ref name="Glucksmann"/>
 The differences in strength can be very significant. For instance, gross measures of body strength suggest that women are approximately only 50% to 60% as strong as men in the upper body, and 60% to 70% as strong in the lower body.<ref name="pmid8477683">Miller AE, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, Sale DG (1993) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8477683 Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics.] ''Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol'' 66 (3):254-62. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/8477683 8477683]</ref> A study of hand-grip strength found that even elite female athletes can be surpassed by a man with no athletic training.<ref name="pmid17186303">Leyk D, Gorges W, Ridder D, Wunderlich M, Rüther T, Sievert A et al. (2007) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17186303 Hand-grip strength of young men, women and highly trained female athletes.] ''Eur J Appl Physiol'' 99 (4):415-21. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-006-0351-1 DOI:10.1007/s00421-006-0351-1] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/17186303 17186303]</ref> Another study of sports performance in various disciplines found that males tend to perform 5.5% to 36.8% better, depending on the discipline.<ref name="pmid24149688">Thibault V, Guillaume M, Berthelot G, Helou NE, Schaal K, Quinquis L et al. (2010) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24149688 Women and Men in Sport Performance: The Gender Gap has not Evolved since 1983.] ''J Sports Sci Med'' 9 (2):214-23. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/24149688 24149688]</ref>