FeministWiki - Contributi dell'utente [it]

Transwomen in women's sports

2019-04-29T22:39:09Z

Sensohanzaisha: /* Gabrielle Ludwig */ a military veteran --> a Navy veteran

Since the [[Trans activism|trans activist]] notion of "trans women are women" is meant literally, it follows that transwomen would be allowed to partake in women's sports. When a sports organization adheres to this notion, it poses a problem to women's sports, since the various physiological differences between the sexes allow peak-performing male athletes to significantly outperform peak-performing female athletes in most disciplines. The extent to which [[hormone replacement therapy]] (HRT) decreases the advantages of being male is yet unstudied, however it is clear that many of the changes the male body undergoes during puberty are not reversed by HRT, such as overall body size, skeletal structure, or the size of the lungs and heart.

== Physiological differences ==

Significant physiological differences between the human sexes that might affect athletic performance include but are not limited to:

* Males weigh about 15% more on average<ref name="pmid15544194">Ogden CL, Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Flegal KM (2004) [https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad347.pdf Mean body weight, height, and body mass index, United States 1960-2002.] ''Adv Data'' (347):1-17. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/15544194 15544194]</ref>
* Males are about 15 cm (6 in) taller on average<ref name="pmid15544194"/>
* Males have denser and therefore more durable bones on average<ref name="pmid16637873">Benjamin M, Toumi H, Ralphs JR, Bydder G, Best TM, Milz S (2006) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16637873 Where tendons and ligaments meet bone: attachment sites ('entheses') in relation to exercise and/or mechanical load.] ''J Anat'' 208 (4):471-90. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/16637873 16637873]</ref>
* Males have stronger tendons and ligaments on average<ref name="pmid16637873" />
* Males on average have greater total muscle mass<ref name="Janssen">Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Wang, Z., & Ross, R. (2000). [http://jap.physiology.org/content/89/1/81 Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr.] Journal of Applied Physiology, 89(1), 81-88. doi:10.1152/jappl.2000.89.1.81 </ref>
* Males on average have a greater ratio of muscle mass to total body mass<ref name="Janssen"/>
* Males have about 56% greater lung volume relative to body mass<ref name="Glucksmann">Glucksmann, A. (1981). Sexual dimorphism in human and mammalian biology and pathology. London: Academic Press. pp. 66–75</ref>
* Males have larger hearts, with 10% higher red blood cell count and higher haemoglobin, meaning greater oxygen carrying capacity, although the difference is less pronounced among athletes<ref name="Glucksmann"/>
* Males have higher circulating "clotting factors" which allow for faster healing of wounds and higher peripheral pain tolerance<ref name="Glucksmann"/>

The differences in strength can be very significant. For instance, gross measures of body strength suggest that women are approximately only 50% to 60% as strong as men in the upper body, and 60% to 70% as strong in the lower body.<ref name="pmid8477683">Miller AE, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, Sale DG (1993) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8477683 Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics.] ''Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol'' 66 (3):254-62. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/8477683 8477683]</ref> A study of hand-grip strength found that even elite female athletes can be surpassed by a man with no athletic training.<ref name="pmid17186303">Leyk D, Gorges W, Ridder D, Wunderlich M, Rüther T, Sievert A et al. (2007) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17186303 Hand-grip strength of young men, women and highly trained female athletes.] ''Eur J Appl Physiol'' 99 (4):415-21. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-006-0351-1 DOI:10.1007/s00421-006-0351-1] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/17186303 17186303]</ref> Another study of sports performance in various disciplines found that males tend to perform 5.5% to 36.8% better, depending on the discipline.<ref name="pmid24149688">Thibault V, Guillaume M, Berthelot G, Helou NE, Schaal K, Quinquis L et al. (2010) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24149688 Women and Men in Sport Performance: The Gender Gap has not Evolved since 1983.] ''J Sports Sci Med'' 9 (2):214-23. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/24149688 24149688]</ref>

== Notable transwomen in women's sports ==

=== Fallon Fox ===

Male transgender mixed martial arts (MMA) fighter [[Fallon Fox]] has brutalized a female opponent, Tamikka Brents, causing her to suffer a concussion, an orbital bone fracture, and seven staples to the head, in the first round. After her loss, Brents took to social media to convey her thoughts on the experience of fighting Fox: "I've fought a lot of women and have never felt the strength that I felt in a fight as I did that night. I can't answer whether it's because she was born a man or not because I'm not a doctor. I can only say, I've never felt so overpowered ever in my life and I am an abnormally strong female in my own right," she stated. "Her grip was different, I could usually move around in the clinch against other females but couldn't move at all in Fox's clinch..."<ref>Cage Potato. (n.d.). After Being TKO'd by Fallon Fox, Tamikka Brents Says Transgender Fighters in MMA ‘Just Isn’t Fair’. [online] Available at: https://archive.is/yZfcs [Accessed 31 Jan. 2019].</ref> Fox has won 5 out of 6 MMA fights in total.

=== Rachel McKinnon ===

Male transgender cyclist [[Rachel McKinnon]] won the women’s 35-44 sprint during the UCI Masters Track Cycling World Championships in Los Angeles, in October 2018.<ref>Ballinger, A. (2019). Rachel McKinnon becomes first transgender woman to win track world title - Cycling Weekly. [online] Cycling Weekly. Available at: https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/latest-news/rachel-mckinnon-becomes-first-transgender-woman-win-track-world-title-397473 [Accessed 31 Jan. 2019].</ref> Third place finisher Jennifer Wagner commented that this was unfair, and later commented on Twitter that she would work on getting the rules changed, which Rachel McKinnon characterized as transphobic.

=== Terry Miller and Andraya Yearwood ===

Two male transgender high school athletes, [[Terry Miller]] and [[Andraya Yearwood]], won first and second place in the Connecticut state championship 100-meter dash in 2018. Miller also won first place in the 200-meter dash.<ref>Hudak, A. (2018, June 14). Transgender track stars win state championship, ignites debate over rules. Retrieved from https://www.wkbn.com/news/national-world/transgender-track-stars-win-state-championship-ignites-debate/1238813951 </ref>

=== Laurel Hubbard ===

Male transgender New Zealand weightlifter [[Laurel Hubbard]] competed at the heaviest 90 kg+ category at the 2017 Australian International & Australian Open in Melbourne, winning the gold medal.<ref>http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/more-sports/laurel-hubbard-wins-female-90kg-division-at-weightliftings-australian-international/news-story/cd4a5fa012eb9a5ceb0281faceea5c7a</ref> Hubbard qualified for the 2018 Commonwealth Games, but an elbow injury during the competition forced Hubbard's withdrawal from the event, while however leading the field.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/apr/09/transgender-weightlifter-laurel-hubbards-eligibility-under-scrutiny</ref>

=== Michelle Dumaresq ===

Canadian professional downhill mountain-bike competitor [[Michelle Dumaresq]], who is a [[Sex reassignment surgery|post-operative]] male-born transsexual, won the 2002 Canada Cup series, which qualified Dumaresq for the Canadian National team. In September 2002, Dumaresq co-represented Canada at the World Mountain Bike Championships. However, due to technical issues with the bike, Dumaresq only managed a 24th-place finish in the event. In 2003, Dumaresq won the 2003 Canadian National Championships and again represented Canada in the 2003 World Championships. Dumaresq repeated a Nationals win in 2004 and finished 17th at the 2004 World Mountain Bike Championships held in Les Gets, France.

At the 2006 Canadian Nationals, a protest from one of the competitors during the podium ceremonies brought attention to Dumaresq's participation in female sports. The boyfriend of second-place finisher Danika Schroeter jumped up onto the podium and helped Schroeter put on a T-shirt reading '100% Pure Woman Champ'. The Canadian Cycling Association suspended Schroeter for her actions. However, the CCA announced that Schroeter's time off the race course would be served during the off-season when it would have no impact on her.

=== Hannah Mouncey ===

On 27 May 2018, male transgender handball player [[Hannah Mouncey]] scored three goals for Melbourne Handball Club in their win over University of Queensland Handball Club for the 2018 Oceanian Open Club Championship.<ref>http://handballvic.org.au/event/5628/</ref>

=== Gabrielle Ludwig ===
At 52, Gabrielle Ludwig, a Navy veteran, enrolled in Santa Clara Community College's women basketball team. [https://culturallyboundgender.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/bilde.jpg Towering at 6’8”], and more than 30 years older than the female players, this post-operative transwoman was predicted by the team's coach to become "the most dangerous player in the state”,<ref>[https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/50-year-old-transsexual-8216woman8217-makes-college-basketball-debut-video 50-year-old transsexual ‘woman’ makes college basketball debut]. (n.d.). Retrieved 31 January 2019.</ref> a prediction which proved to be accurate.<ref>[http://www.espn.com/espnw/athletes-life/article/10170842/espnw-gabrielle-ludwig-52-year-old-transgender-women-college-basketball-player-enjoying-best-year-life espnW -- Gabrielle Ludwig, a 52-year-old transgender women’s college basketball player, enjoying best year of her life.] (n.d.). Retrieved 31 January 2019</ref>

== References ==

<references/>

Transwomen in women's sports

2019-04-29T22:34:40Z

Sensohanzaisha: avreage --> average

Since the [[Trans activism|trans activist]] notion of "trans women are women" is meant literally, it follows that transwomen would be allowed to partake in women's sports. When a sports organization adheres to this notion, it poses a problem to women's sports, since the various physiological differences between the sexes allow peak-performing male athletes to significantly outperform peak-performing female athletes in most disciplines. The extent to which [[hormone replacement therapy]] (HRT) decreases the advantages of being male is yet unstudied, however it is clear that many of the changes the male body undergoes during puberty are not reversed by HRT, such as overall body size, skeletal structure, or the size of the lungs and heart.

== Physiological differences ==

Significant physiological differences between the human sexes that might affect athletic performance include but are not limited to:

* Males weigh about 15% more on average<ref name="pmid15544194">Ogden CL, Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Flegal KM (2004) [https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad347.pdf Mean body weight, height, and body mass index, United States 1960-2002.] ''Adv Data'' (347):1-17. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/15544194 15544194]</ref>
* Males are about 15 cm (6 in) taller on average<ref name="pmid15544194"/>
* Males have denser and therefore more durable bones on average<ref name="pmid16637873">Benjamin M, Toumi H, Ralphs JR, Bydder G, Best TM, Milz S (2006) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16637873 Where tendons and ligaments meet bone: attachment sites ('entheses') in relation to exercise and/or mechanical load.] ''J Anat'' 208 (4):471-90. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/16637873 16637873]</ref>
* Males have stronger tendons and ligaments on average<ref name="pmid16637873" />
* Males on average have greater total muscle mass<ref name="Janssen">Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Wang, Z., & Ross, R. (2000). [http://jap.physiology.org/content/89/1/81 Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr.] Journal of Applied Physiology, 89(1), 81-88. doi:10.1152/jappl.2000.89.1.81 </ref>
* Males on average have a greater ratio of muscle mass to total body mass<ref name="Janssen"/>
* Males have about 56% greater lung volume relative to body mass<ref name="Glucksmann">Glucksmann, A. (1981). Sexual dimorphism in human and mammalian biology and pathology. London: Academic Press. pp. 66–75</ref>
* Males have larger hearts, with 10% higher red blood cell count and higher haemoglobin, meaning greater oxygen carrying capacity, although the difference is less pronounced among athletes<ref name="Glucksmann"/>
* Males have higher circulating "clotting factors" which allow for faster healing of wounds and higher peripheral pain tolerance<ref name="Glucksmann"/>

The differences in strength can be very significant. For instance, gross measures of body strength suggest that women are approximately only 50% to 60% as strong as men in the upper body, and 60% to 70% as strong in the lower body.<ref name="pmid8477683">Miller AE, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, Sale DG (1993) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8477683 Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics.] ''Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol'' 66 (3):254-62. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/8477683 8477683]</ref> A study of hand-grip strength found that even elite female athletes can be surpassed by a man with no athletic training.<ref name="pmid17186303">Leyk D, Gorges W, Ridder D, Wunderlich M, Rüther T, Sievert A et al. (2007) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17186303 Hand-grip strength of young men, women and highly trained female athletes.] ''Eur J Appl Physiol'' 99 (4):415-21. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-006-0351-1 DOI:10.1007/s00421-006-0351-1] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/17186303 17186303]</ref> Another study of sports performance in various disciplines found that males tend to perform 5.5% to 36.8% better, depending on the discipline.<ref name="pmid24149688">Thibault V, Guillaume M, Berthelot G, Helou NE, Schaal K, Quinquis L et al. (2010) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24149688 Women and Men in Sport Performance: The Gender Gap has not Evolved since 1983.] ''J Sports Sci Med'' 9 (2):214-23. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/24149688 24149688]</ref>

== Notable transwomen in women's sports ==

=== Fallon Fox ===

Male transgender mixed martial arts (MMA) fighter [[Fallon Fox]] has brutalized a female opponent, Tamikka Brents, causing her to suffer a concussion, an orbital bone fracture, and seven staples to the head, in the first round. After her loss, Brents took to social media to convey her thoughts on the experience of fighting Fox: "I've fought a lot of women and have never felt the strength that I felt in a fight as I did that night. I can't answer whether it's because she was born a man or not because I'm not a doctor. I can only say, I've never felt so overpowered ever in my life and I am an abnormally strong female in my own right," she stated. "Her grip was different, I could usually move around in the clinch against other females but couldn't move at all in Fox's clinch..."<ref>Cage Potato. (n.d.). After Being TKO'd by Fallon Fox, Tamikka Brents Says Transgender Fighters in MMA ‘Just Isn’t Fair’. [online] Available at: https://archive.is/yZfcs [Accessed 31 Jan. 2019].</ref> Fox has won 5 out of 6 MMA fights in total.

=== Rachel McKinnon ===

Male transgender cyclist [[Rachel McKinnon]] won the women’s 35-44 sprint during the UCI Masters Track Cycling World Championships in Los Angeles, in October 2018.<ref>Ballinger, A. (2019). Rachel McKinnon becomes first transgender woman to win track world title - Cycling Weekly. [online] Cycling Weekly. Available at: https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/latest-news/rachel-mckinnon-becomes-first-transgender-woman-win-track-world-title-397473 [Accessed 31 Jan. 2019].</ref> Third place finisher Jennifer Wagner commented that this was unfair, and later commented on Twitter that she would work on getting the rules changed, which Rachel McKinnon characterized as transphobic.

=== Terry Miller and Andraya Yearwood ===

Two male transgender high school athletes, [[Terry Miller]] and [[Andraya Yearwood]], won first and second place in the Connecticut state championship 100-meter dash in 2018. Miller also won first place in the 200-meter dash.<ref>Hudak, A. (2018, June 14). Transgender track stars win state championship, ignites debate over rules. Retrieved from https://www.wkbn.com/news/national-world/transgender-track-stars-win-state-championship-ignites-debate/1238813951 </ref>

=== Laurel Hubbard ===

Male transgender New Zealand weightlifter [[Laurel Hubbard]] competed at the heaviest 90 kg+ category at the 2017 Australian International & Australian Open in Melbourne, winning the gold medal.<ref>http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/more-sports/laurel-hubbard-wins-female-90kg-division-at-weightliftings-australian-international/news-story/cd4a5fa012eb9a5ceb0281faceea5c7a</ref> Hubbard qualified for the 2018 Commonwealth Games, but an elbow injury during the competition forced Hubbard's withdrawal from the event, while however leading the field.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/apr/09/transgender-weightlifter-laurel-hubbards-eligibility-under-scrutiny</ref>

=== Michelle Dumaresq ===

Canadian professional downhill mountain-bike competitor [[Michelle Dumaresq]], who is a [[Sex reassignment surgery|post-operative]] male-born transsexual, won the 2002 Canada Cup series, which qualified Dumaresq for the Canadian National team. In September 2002, Dumaresq co-represented Canada at the World Mountain Bike Championships. However, due to technical issues with the bike, Dumaresq only managed a 24th-place finish in the event. In 2003, Dumaresq won the 2003 Canadian National Championships and again represented Canada in the 2003 World Championships. Dumaresq repeated a Nationals win in 2004 and finished 17th at the 2004 World Mountain Bike Championships held in Les Gets, France.

At the 2006 Canadian Nationals, a protest from one of the competitors during the podium ceremonies brought attention to Dumaresq's participation in female sports. The boyfriend of second-place finisher Danika Schroeter jumped up onto the podium and helped Schroeter put on a T-shirt reading '100% Pure Woman Champ'. The Canadian Cycling Association suspended Schroeter for her actions. However, the CCA announced that Schroeter's time off the race course would be served during the off-season when it would have no impact on her.

=== Hannah Mouncey ===

On 27 May 2018, male transgender handball player [[Hannah Mouncey]] scored three goals for Melbourne Handball Club in their win over University of Queensland Handball Club for the 2018 Oceanian Open Club Championship.<ref>http://handballvic.org.au/event/5628/</ref>

=== Gabrielle Ludwig ===
At 52, Gabrielle Ludwig, a former military, enrolled in Santa Clara Community College's women basketball team. [https://culturallyboundgender.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/bilde.jpg Towering at 6’8”], and more than 30 years older than the female players, this post-operative transwoman was predicted by the team's coach to become "the most dangerous player in the state”,<ref>[https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/50-year-old-transsexual-8216woman8217-makes-college-basketball-debut-video 50-year-old transsexual ‘woman’ makes college basketball debut]. (n.d.). Retrieved 31 January 2019.</ref> a prediction which proved to be accurate.<ref>[http://www.espn.com/espnw/athletes-life/article/10170842/espnw-gabrielle-ludwig-52-year-old-transgender-women-college-basketball-player-enjoying-best-year-life espnW -- Gabrielle Ludwig, a 52-year-old transgender women’s college basketball player, enjoying best year of her life.] (n.d.). Retrieved 31 January 2019</ref>

== References ==

<references/>

Transwomen in women's sports

2019-04-29T22:34:11Z

Sensohanzaisha: weight --> weigh

Since the [[Trans activism|trans activist]] notion of "trans women are women" is meant literally, it follows that transwomen would be allowed to partake in women's sports. When a sports organization adheres to this notion, it poses a problem to women's sports, since the various physiological differences between the sexes allow peak-performing male athletes to significantly outperform peak-performing female athletes in most disciplines. The extent to which [[hormone replacement therapy]] (HRT) decreases the advantages of being male is yet unstudied, however it is clear that many of the changes the male body undergoes during puberty are not reversed by HRT, such as overall body size, skeletal structure, or the size of the lungs and heart.

== Physiological differences ==

Significant physiological differences between the human sexes that might affect athletic performance include but are not limited to:

* Males weigh about 15% more on average<ref name="pmid15544194">Ogden CL, Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Flegal KM (2004) [https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad347.pdf Mean body weight, height, and body mass index, United States 1960-2002.] ''Adv Data'' (347):1-17. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/15544194 15544194]</ref>
* Males are about 15 cm (6 in) taller on average<ref name="pmid15544194"/>
* Males have denser and therefore more durable bones on average<ref name="pmid16637873">Benjamin M, Toumi H, Ralphs JR, Bydder G, Best TM, Milz S (2006) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16637873 Where tendons and ligaments meet bone: attachment sites ('entheses') in relation to exercise and/or mechanical load.] ''J Anat'' 208 (4):471-90. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00540.x] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/16637873 16637873]</ref>
* Males have stronger tendons and ligaments on average<ref name="pmid16637873" />
* Males on avreage have greater total muscle mass<ref name="Janssen">Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Wang, Z., & Ross, R. (2000). [http://jap.physiology.org/content/89/1/81 Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr.] Journal of Applied Physiology, 89(1), 81-88. doi:10.1152/jappl.2000.89.1.81 </ref>
* Males on average have a greater ratio of muscle mass to total body mass<ref name="Janssen"/>
* Males have about 56% greater lung volume relative to body mass<ref name="Glucksmann">Glucksmann, A. (1981). Sexual dimorphism in human and mammalian biology and pathology. London: Academic Press. pp. 66–75</ref>
* Males have larger hearts, with 10% higher red blood cell count and higher haemoglobin, meaning greater oxygen carrying capacity, although the difference is less pronounced among athletes<ref name="Glucksmann"/>
* Males have higher circulating "clotting factors" which allow for faster healing of wounds and higher peripheral pain tolerance<ref name="Glucksmann"/>

The differences in strength can be very significant. For instance, gross measures of body strength suggest that women are approximately only 50% to 60% as strong as men in the upper body, and 60% to 70% as strong in the lower body.<ref name="pmid8477683">Miller AE, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, Sale DG (1993) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8477683 Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics.] ''Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol'' 66 (3):254-62. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/8477683 8477683]</ref> A study of hand-grip strength found that even elite female athletes can be surpassed by a man with no athletic training.<ref name="pmid17186303">Leyk D, Gorges W, Ridder D, Wunderlich M, Rüther T, Sievert A et al. (2007) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17186303 Hand-grip strength of young men, women and highly trained female athletes.] ''Eur J Appl Physiol'' 99 (4):415-21. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-006-0351-1 DOI:10.1007/s00421-006-0351-1] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/17186303 17186303]</ref> Another study of sports performance in various disciplines found that males tend to perform 5.5% to 36.8% better, depending on the discipline.<ref name="pmid24149688">Thibault V, Guillaume M, Berthelot G, Helou NE, Schaal K, Quinquis L et al. (2010) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24149688 Women and Men in Sport Performance: The Gender Gap has not Evolved since 1983.] ''J Sports Sci Med'' 9 (2):214-23. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/24149688 24149688]</ref>

== Notable transwomen in women's sports ==

=== Fallon Fox ===

Male transgender mixed martial arts (MMA) fighter [[Fallon Fox]] has brutalized a female opponent, Tamikka Brents, causing her to suffer a concussion, an orbital bone fracture, and seven staples to the head, in the first round. After her loss, Brents took to social media to convey her thoughts on the experience of fighting Fox: "I've fought a lot of women and have never felt the strength that I felt in a fight as I did that night. I can't answer whether it's because she was born a man or not because I'm not a doctor. I can only say, I've never felt so overpowered ever in my life and I am an abnormally strong female in my own right," she stated. "Her grip was different, I could usually move around in the clinch against other females but couldn't move at all in Fox's clinch..."<ref>Cage Potato. (n.d.). After Being TKO'd by Fallon Fox, Tamikka Brents Says Transgender Fighters in MMA ‘Just Isn’t Fair’. [online] Available at: https://archive.is/yZfcs [Accessed 31 Jan. 2019].</ref> Fox has won 5 out of 6 MMA fights in total.

=== Rachel McKinnon ===

Male transgender cyclist [[Rachel McKinnon]] won the women’s 35-44 sprint during the UCI Masters Track Cycling World Championships in Los Angeles, in October 2018.<ref>Ballinger, A. (2019). Rachel McKinnon becomes first transgender woman to win track world title - Cycling Weekly. [online] Cycling Weekly. Available at: https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/latest-news/rachel-mckinnon-becomes-first-transgender-woman-win-track-world-title-397473 [Accessed 31 Jan. 2019].</ref> Third place finisher Jennifer Wagner commented that this was unfair, and later commented on Twitter that she would work on getting the rules changed, which Rachel McKinnon characterized as transphobic.

=== Terry Miller and Andraya Yearwood ===

Two male transgender high school athletes, [[Terry Miller]] and [[Andraya Yearwood]], won first and second place in the Connecticut state championship 100-meter dash in 2018. Miller also won first place in the 200-meter dash.<ref>Hudak, A. (2018, June 14). Transgender track stars win state championship, ignites debate over rules. Retrieved from https://www.wkbn.com/news/national-world/transgender-track-stars-win-state-championship-ignites-debate/1238813951 </ref>

=== Laurel Hubbard ===

Male transgender New Zealand weightlifter [[Laurel Hubbard]] competed at the heaviest 90 kg+ category at the 2017 Australian International & Australian Open in Melbourne, winning the gold medal.<ref>http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/more-sports/laurel-hubbard-wins-female-90kg-division-at-weightliftings-australian-international/news-story/cd4a5fa012eb9a5ceb0281faceea5c7a</ref> Hubbard qualified for the 2018 Commonwealth Games, but an elbow injury during the competition forced Hubbard's withdrawal from the event, while however leading the field.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/apr/09/transgender-weightlifter-laurel-hubbards-eligibility-under-scrutiny</ref>

=== Michelle Dumaresq ===

Canadian professional downhill mountain-bike competitor [[Michelle Dumaresq]], who is a [[Sex reassignment surgery|post-operative]] male-born transsexual, won the 2002 Canada Cup series, which qualified Dumaresq for the Canadian National team. In September 2002, Dumaresq co-represented Canada at the World Mountain Bike Championships. However, due to technical issues with the bike, Dumaresq only managed a 24th-place finish in the event. In 2003, Dumaresq won the 2003 Canadian National Championships and again represented Canada in the 2003 World Championships. Dumaresq repeated a Nationals win in 2004 and finished 17th at the 2004 World Mountain Bike Championships held in Les Gets, France.

At the 2006 Canadian Nationals, a protest from one of the competitors during the podium ceremonies brought attention to Dumaresq's participation in female sports. The boyfriend of second-place finisher Danika Schroeter jumped up onto the podium and helped Schroeter put on a T-shirt reading '100% Pure Woman Champ'. The Canadian Cycling Association suspended Schroeter for her actions. However, the CCA announced that Schroeter's time off the race course would be served during the off-season when it would have no impact on her.

=== Hannah Mouncey ===

On 27 May 2018, male transgender handball player [[Hannah Mouncey]] scored three goals for Melbourne Handball Club in their win over University of Queensland Handball Club for the 2018 Oceanian Open Club Championship.<ref>http://handballvic.org.au/event/5628/</ref>

=== Gabrielle Ludwig ===
At 52, Gabrielle Ludwig, a former military, enrolled in Santa Clara Community College's women basketball team. [https://culturallyboundgender.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/bilde.jpg Towering at 6’8”], and more than 30 years older than the female players, this post-operative transwoman was predicted by the team's coach to become "the most dangerous player in the state”,<ref>[https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/50-year-old-transsexual-8216woman8217-makes-college-basketball-debut-video 50-year-old transsexual ‘woman’ makes college basketball debut]. (n.d.). Retrieved 31 January 2019.</ref> a prediction which proved to be accurate.<ref>[http://www.espn.com/espnw/athletes-life/article/10170842/espnw-gabrielle-ludwig-52-year-old-transgender-women-college-basketball-player-enjoying-best-year-life espnW -- Gabrielle Ludwig, a 52-year-old transgender women’s college basketball player, enjoying best year of her life.] (n.d.). Retrieved 31 January 2019</ref>

== References ==

<references/>

Gendered oppression

2019-04-29T22:32:07Z

Sensohanzaisha: oppression --> oppressions

'''Gendered oppression''' is the systemic manner in which certain groups are privileged or disadvantaged because of their gender. Because gender is such an integral part of society, we may unconsciously subscribe to harmful and inaccurate gender stereotypes. These socially constructed assumptions about gender do not describe essential characteristics of men, women, and people outside of the gender binary, yet they often claim to. This maintains the '''gendered power difference''' that allows certain groups to benefit (socially and economically) at the expense of others.

The maintenance of gendered oppression is systemic and structural. In other words, it results from everyday practices and unquestioned assumptions within society, not necessarily from a few individuals in power. The dissemination of gendered oppression can often be subtle. Popular jokes or comments can be very effective means of spreading and maintaining harmful gendered attitudes.

Gendered oppression does not act in isolation. It intersects with discrimination based on race, sexuality, ability, class, age, history of incarceration, religion, language, and citizenship status. Analysis of any one of these oppressions alone is insufficient; each reinforces the other. In addition, the intersection of oppression is not simply a linear combination of the individual oppression. For example, a Black lesbian’s experience is not just the composite of a Black man’s and a white lesbian’s oppression. For these reasons, tackling gendered oppression necessarily involves exploring all other forms of oppression.

<references />
Reference
https://web.mit.edu/feminists/DiscussionGroup/articles

Gendered oppression

2019-04-29T22:29:22Z

Sensohanzaisha: adding References section

'''Gendered oppression''' is the systemic manner in which certain groups are privileged or disadvantaged because of their gender. Because gender is such an integral part of society, we may unconsciously subscribe to harmful and inaccurate gender stereotypes. These socially constructed assumptions about gender do not describe essential characteristics of men, women, and people outside of the gender binary, yet they often claim to. This maintains the '''gendered power difference''' that allows certain groups to benefit (socially and economically) at the expense of others.

The maintenance of gendered oppression is systemic and structural. In other words, it results from everyday practices and unquestioned assumptions within society, not necessarily from a few individuals in power. The dissemination of gendered oppression can often be subtle. Popular jokes or comments can be very effective means of spreading and maintaining harmful gendered attitudes.

Gendered oppression does not act in isolation. It intersects with discrimination based on race, sexuality, ability, class, age, history of incarceration, religion, language, and citizenship status. Analysis of any one of these oppression alone is insufficient; each reinforces the other. In addition, the intersection of oppression is not simply a linear combination of the individual oppression. For example, a Black lesbian’s experience is not just the composite of a Black man’s and a white lesbian’s oppression. For these reasons, tackling gendered oppression necessarily involves exploring all other forms of oppression.

<references />
Reference
https://web.mit.edu/feminists/DiscussionGroup/articles

Nordic Model

2019-04-29T22:18:48Z

Sensohanzaisha: can not --> cannot

In anti-prostitution feminism, the '''Nordic Model''' (previously '''Swedish Model''') refers to a legal system in which those who prostitute others (pimps) and those who buy sex (punters) are criminalized, whereas those who are prostituted or who prostitute themselves are decriminalized. Further, the model emphasizes the importance of offering social and economic support to those who would otherwise have no other choice than to prostitute themselves, due to economic and/or mental health related problems such as addiction.

The Nordic Model is unique in that it views prostitution inherently as a crime committed against the prostituted. The idea stems from the feminist analysis of prostitution as a form of economic exploitation and coercion of women into allowing men direct access to their bodies for nothing other than the men's carnal pleasure. This is seen as a uniquely undignifying and often severely traumatizing act, which cannot be seen as a legitimate form of labor. In many instances, the victims of prostitution can also be transsexuals, men, or even children, although the sex buyers are nearly always men.

Further, pimps are often known to hold the prostituted in slave-like conditions, in which the prostituted barely receive a share of the earnings, and are routinely abused not only by the punters but also by the pimp. An even more extreme version of this is the combination of human trafficking with forced prostitution, in which women or other persons are traded like slaves for the sole purpose of being forced into prostitution by the buyer. The relation between the "demand" created by punters willing to buy sex, and the corresponding "supply" which is then offered by pimps and human traffickers, forms an additional motivation for the Nordic Model, which is to '''end demand''' for prostituted people. As the buying of sex is criminalized, the demand for prostitution decreases, and as such pimps and human traffickers lose motivation to take the risk of getting caught, since their earnings aren't as lucrative as before.

The Nordic Model is routinely criticized by "pro-sex work" activists, who hold the free choice of a comparatively privileged person to willingly do prostitution above the safety and rights of those who inevitably suffer under forced prostitution when prostitution is tolerated at all by society. They argue that the problems of forced prostitution, physical/sexual abuse in prostitution, and human trafficking, can be clearly separated from the act of prostitution itself. Many go as far as claiming that if prostitution were to be fully decriminalized, it would decrease the more abusive forms of prostitution as "cleaner" forms of prostitution would replace them. Data suggests however that the net effect of full decriminalization is an increase rather than a decrease in human trafficking, as predicted by proponents of the Nordic Model. It is also observed that, despite "pro-sex work" activists' claims that decriminalization decreases "stigma" and as such the likelihood of prostituted women suffering from violence, there seems to be in fact no end to the extreme forms of violence faced by prostituted women in countries such as New Zealand where prostitution is fully decriminalized.

== References ==

* https://nordicmodelnow.org/
* http://prostitutionresearch.com/
* https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X12001453
* http://www.lse.ac.uk/website-archive/newsAndMedia/newsArchives/2012/12/Legalised-prostitution-increases-human-trafficking.aspx
* https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/04/19/is-legalized-prostitution-safer/legalizing-prostitution-leads-to-more-trafficking
* https://www.feministcurrent.com/2015/11/03/remembering-the-murdered-women-erased-by-the-pro-sex-work-agenda/

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Black feminism

2019-04-29T22:12:32Z

Sensohanzaisha: /* References */

'''Black feminism''' refers to ideologies centered on the experiences of Black women. A central theme in Black feminism is ''intersectionality'', which refers to the ways gender, race, and other social categories interact to influence an individual's life outcomes and experiences of oppression. Prominent Black feminists from the 19th to 21th centuries include [[Anna Julia Cooper]], [[Ida B. Wells]], [[Sojourner Truth]], [[Audre Lorde]], [[Patricia Hill Collins]], Gloria Jean Watkins aka [[bell hooks]], [[Kimberlé Crenshaw]], [[Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie]], and Claire Heuchan aka [[Sister Outrider]].

== History ==

Women such as Sojourner Truth, Anna Julia Cooper, and Ida B. Wells exemplified Black feminist activism in the nineteenth century.

In 1851, women’s rights advocate and abolitionist [[Sojourner Truth]] gave a speech at a women’s rights convention in which she challenged both racism and sexism faced by Black women. No actual transcription of the speech exists, although Marius Robinson, who was present during the speech and who worked with Truth, published the following written version some weeks after the original speech:

<blockquote>
I want to say a few words about this matter. I am a woman's rights. [sic] I have as much muscle as any man, and can do as much work as any man. I have plowed and reaped and husked and chopped and mowed, and can any man do more than that? I have heard much about the sexes being equal. I can carry as much as any man, and can eat as much too, if I can get it. I am as strong as any man that is now. As for intellect, all I can say is, if a woman have a pint, and a man a quart – why can't she have her little pint full? You need not be afraid to give us our rights for fear we will take too much, – for we can't take more than our pint'll hold. The poor men seems to be all in confusion, and don't know what to do. Why children, if you have woman's rights, give it to her and you will feel better. You will have your own rights, and they won't be so much trouble. I can't read, but I can hear. I have heard the bible and have learned that Eve caused man to sin. Well, if woman upset the world, do give her a chance to set it right side up again. The Lady has spoken about Jesus, how he never spurned woman from him, and she was right. When Lazarus died, Mary and Martha came to him with faith and love and besought him to raise their brother. And Jesus wept and Lazarus came forth. And how came Jesus into the world? Through God who created him and the woman who bore him. Man, where was your part? But the women are coming up blessed be God and a few of the men are coming up with them. But man is in a tight place, the poor slave is on him, woman is coming on him, he is surely between a hawk and a buzzard.
</blockquote>

About a decade later, women's rights and abolition activist Gage published a different version, featuring a heavy Southern dialect, recalled from her memory. Following is her recalling of the speech, with the Southern dialect edited to more common English for easier reading:

<blockquote>
The leaders of the movement trembled on seeing a tall, gaunt black woman in a gray dress and white turban, surmounted with an uncouth sunbonnet, march deliberately into the church, walk with the air of a queen up the aisle, and take her seat upon the pulpit steps. A buzz of disapprobation was heard all over the house, and there fell on the listening ear, 'An abolition affair!" "Woman's rights and niggers!" "I told you so!" "Go it, darkey!" . . Again and again, timorous and trembling ones came to me and said, with earnestness, "Don't let her speak, Mrs. Gage, it will ruin us. Every newspaper in the land will have our cause mixed up with abolition and niggers, and we shall be utterly denounced." My only answer was, "We shall see when the time comes."

The second day the work waxed warm. Methodist, Baptist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Universalist minister came in to hear and discuss the resolutions presented. One claimed superior rights and privileges for man, on the ground of "superior intellect"; another, because of the "manhood of Christ; if God had desired the equality of woman, He would have given some token of His will through the birth, life, and death of the Saviour." Another gave us a theological view of the "sin of our first mother."

There were very few women in those days who dared to "speak in meeting"; and the august teachers of the people were seemingly getting the better of us, while the boys in the galleries, and the sneerers among the pews, were hugely enjoying the discomfiture as they supposed, of the "strong-minded." Some of the tender-skinned friends were on the point of losing dignity, and the atmosphere betokened a storm. When, slowly from her seat in the corner rose Sojourner Truth, who, till now, had scarcely lifted her head. "Don't let her speak!" gasped half a dozen in my ear. She moved slowly and solemnly to the front, laid her old bonnet at her feet, and turned her great speaking eyes to me. There was a hissing sound of disapprobation above and below. I rose and announced, "Sojourner Truth," and begged the audience to keep silence for a few moments.

The tumult subsided at once, and every eye was fixed on this almost Amazon form, which stood nearly six feet high, head erect, and eyes piercing the upper air like one in a dream. At her first word there was a profound hush. She spoke in deep tones, which, though not loud, reached every ear in the house, and away through the throng at the doors and windows.

"Well, children, where there is so much racket there must be somethin' out o' kilter. I think that twixt the niggers of the South and the women of the North, all talkin' about rights, the white man will be in a fix pretty soon. But what's all this here talkin' about?"

"That man over there say that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place!" And raising herself to her full height, and her voice to a pitch like rolling thunder, she asked. "And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! (and she bared her right arm to the shoulder, showing her tremendous muscular power). I have plowed, and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man--when I could get it--and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have born thirteen children, and seen 'em most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?"

"Then they talk 'bout this thing in the head; what this they call it?" ("Intellect," whispered some one near.) "That's it, honey. What's that got to do with women's rights or nigger's rights? If my cup won't hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn't you be mean not to let me have my little half-measure full?" And she pointed her significant finger, and sent a keen glance at the minister who had made the argument. The cheering was long and loud.

"Then that little man in black there, he says women can't have as much rights as men, 'cause Christ wasn't a woman! Where did your Christ come from?" Rolling thunder couldn't have stilled that crowd, as did those deep, wonderful tones, as she stood there with outstretched arms and eyes of fire. Raising her voice still louder, she repeated, "Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! Man had nothin' to do with Him." Oh, what a rebuke that was to that little man.

Turning again to another objector, she took up the defense of Mother Eve. I can not follow her through it all. It was pointed, and witty, and solemn; eliciting at almost every sentence deafening applause; and she ended by asserting: "If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these women together (and she glanced her eye over the platform) ought to be able to turn it back, and get it right side up again! And now they're asking to do it, the men better let 'em." Long-continued cheering greeted this. "Obliged to you for hearin' on me, and now ole Sojourner hasn't got nothin' more to say."
</blockquote>

In 1892 another Black woman, [[Anna Julia Cooper]] published ''A Voice from the South'', a book in which she described the importance of the voices of Black women for social change. Another exemplary Black feminist, [[Ida B. Wells]], an activist and journalist, led a crusade against lynching during the 1890s. The work of these and other Black women shows how Black community politics laid the foundation for social justice toward sexism from Black men, marginalization from White feminists, and disenfranchisement under White male privilege.

== Intersectionality ==

A central theme in black feminism is ''intersectionality'', which refers to the ways gender, race, and other social categories (such as class, sexual orientation, etc.) interact or "intersect" to influence an individual's life outcomes and experiences of oppression. The term was first coined by legal scholar [[Kimberlé Crenshaw]] in 1989, though the concept predates her coining of the term.

In the 1970s, a group of Black women formed the Combahee River Collective. They saw intersectionality (as it is called today) as integral to the distinction between their movement and that of White feminism, because “the major source of difficulty in our political work is that we are not just trying to fight oppression on one front or even two, but instead to address a whole range of oppressions”<ref>[https://americanstudies.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Keyword%20Coalition_Readings.pdf]</ref>. During the twentieth century, Black women remained active in social justice movements as Black feminism and intersectionality expanded into academic and professional discourse. Women like sociologist Patricia Hill Collins, critical race scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw, and writer bell hooks are a few examples.

In recent years, the term intersectionality has frequently been misappropriated by [[Trans activism|transgender activists]], who insist that intersectional feminism must center male people who identify as [[Transwoman|transwomen]] and frequently make comparisons between Black women and transwomen, which some Black women find to be incorrect and racist, since Black women, unlike transwomen, are unambiguously [[female]].

== References ==

* https://www.blackfeminisms.com/black-feminism/
* https://www.blackfeminisms.com/black-feminism-defined/
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain't_I_a_Woman?
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersectionality
* https://sisteroutrider.wordpress.com/
* [https://americanstudies.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Keyword%20Coalition_Readings.pdf The Combahee River collective Statement]

Black feminism

2019-04-29T22:07:15Z

Sensohanzaisha: /* Intersectionality */ added link to The Combahee River Collective Statement