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'''Radical feminism''' is a perspective within [[feminism]] that calls for a [[Political radicalism|radical]] reordering of society in which [[androcentrism|male supremacy]] is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other social divisions such as in race, class, and sexual orientation.<ref name="willis">{{cite journal |last1=Willis|first1=Ellen |title=Radical Feminism and Feminist Radicalism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/466537 |journal=Social Text |date=1984 |issue=9/10 |pages=91–118 |doi=10.2307/466537 |jstor=466537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Giardina, Carol.|first=|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/833292896|title=Freedom for women : Forging the Women's Liberation Movement, 1953-1970|date=2010|publisher=University Press of Florida|year=|isbn=0-8130-3456-6|location=|pages=|oclc=833292896}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|last=Editors|title=Feminist Consciousness: Race and Class – MEETING GROUND OnLine|url=http://meetinggroundonline.org/feminist-consciousness-race-and-class/|access-date=2020-09-15|language=en-US}}</ref>
'''El feminismo radical' '' es una perspectiva dentro del [[feminismo]] que pide un [[Radicalismo político | radical]] reordenamiento de la sociedad en la que el [[androcentrismo | supremacía masculina]] sea eliminado en todos los contextos sociales y económicos , al mismo tiempo que reconoce que las experiencias de las mujeres también se ven afectadas por otras divisiones sociales como la raza, la clase y la orientación sexual. <ref name = "willis"> {{cite journal | last1 = Willis | first1 = Ellen | title = Radical Feminism y Radicalismo feminista | url = https: //www.jstor.org/stable/466537 | journal = Social Text | date = 1984 | número = 9/10 | páginas = 91–118 | doi = 10.2307 / 466537 | jstor = 466537} } </ref> <ref> {{Cite el libro | last = Giardina, Carol. | first = | url = http: //worldcat.org/oclc/833292896 | title = Libertad para las mujeres: Forjando el Movimiento de Liberación de las Mujeres, 1953 -1970 | date = 2010 | publisher = University Press of Florida | year = | isbn = 0-8130-3456-6 | location = | pages = | oclc = 833292896}} </ref> <ref> {{Cite web | last = Editors | title = Conciencia feminista: raza y clase - MEETING GROUND OnLine | url = http: // meetingg roundonline.org/feminist-conscienteness-race-and-class/|access-date=2020-09-15|language=en-US}} </ref>


Radical feminists view society as fundamentally a [[patriarchy]] in which [[Man|men]] dominate and oppress [[Woman|women]]. Radical feminists seek to abolish the patriarchy as one front in a struggle to "liberate everyone from an unjust society by challenging existing social norms and institutions." This struggle includes opposing the [[sexual objectification]] of women, raising public awareness about such issues as [[rape]] and [[violence against women]], challenging the concept of [[gender role]]s, and challenging what radical feminists see as a racialized and gendered capitalism that characterizes the United States and many other countries. According to [[Shulamith Firestone]] in ''[[The Dialectic of Sex|The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution]]'' (1970): "[T]he end goal of feminist revolution must be, unlike that of the first feminist movement, not just the elimination of male ''[[Male privilege|privilege]]'' but of the sex ''distinction'' itself: genital differences between human beings would no longer matter culturally."{{sfn|Firestone|1970|p=11}} While radical feminists believe that differences in genitalia and [[secondary sex characteristics]] should not matter culturally or politically, they also maintain that women's special role in reproduction should be recognized and accommodated without penalty in the workplace, and some have argued compensation should be offered for this socially essential work.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hanisch|first=Carol|title=Housework, Reproduction and Women’s Liberation – MEETING GROUND OnLine|url=http://meetinggroundonline.org/housework-reproduction-and-womens-liberation-2/|access-date=2020-09-15|language=en-US}}</ref>
Las feministas radicales ven la sociedad fundamentalmente como un [[patriarcado]] en el que [[Hombre | hombres]] dominan y oprimen a [[Mujer | mujeres]]. Las feministas radicales buscan abolir el patriarcado como un frente en una lucha por "liberar a todos de una sociedad injusta desafiando las normas e instituciones sociales existentes". Esta lucha incluye oponerse a la [[objetivación sexual]] de las mujeres, sensibilizar al público sobre cuestiones como la [[violación]] y [[violencia contra la mujer]], desafiar el concepto de [[roles de género]] y cuestionar lo que Las feministas radicales ven como un capitalismo racializado y de género que caracteriza a los Estados Unidos y muchos otros países. Según [[Shulamith Firestone]] en '' [[La dialéctica del sexo | La dialéctica del sexo: el caso de la revolución feminista]] '' (1970): "[E] l objetivo final de la revolución feminista debe ser, a diferencia de la del primer movimiento feminista, no sólo la eliminación del '[[Privilegio masculino | privilegio]]' 'masculino sino de la' 'distinción' 'sexual en sí misma: las diferencias genitales entre seres humanos ya no importarían culturalmente. "{{ sfn | Firestone | 1970 | p = 11}} Si bien las feministas radicales creen que las diferencias en los genitales y las [[características sexuales secundarias]] no deberían importar cultural o políticamente, también sostienen que el papel especial de la mujer en la reproducción debería reconocerse y adaptarse sin penalización en el lugar de trabajo, y algunos han argumentado que se debería ofrecer una compensación por este trabajo socialmente esencial. <ref> {{Cite web | last = Hanisch | first = Carol | title = Tareas domésticas, reproducción y liberación de la mujer - MEETING GROUND OnLine | url = http : //meetinggroundonline.org/housework-reproduction-and-womens-liberation-2/ | acc ess-date = 2020-09-15 | language = en-US}} </ref>


Early radical feminism, arising within [[second-wave feminism]] in the 1960s,{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=118}} typically viewed patriarchy as a "transhistorical phenomenon"{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=122}} prior to or deeper than other sources of [[oppression]], "not only the oldest and most universal form of domination but the primary form" and the model for all others.{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=123}} Later politics derived from radical feminism ranged from [[cultural feminism]] to more [[syncretism|syncretic]] politics that placed issues of [[social class|class]], [[economics]], etc. on a par with patriarchy as sources of oppression.{{sfn|Willis|1984|pp=117, 141}}
El feminismo radical temprano, que surgió dentro del [[feminismo de segunda ola]] en la década de 1960, {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 118}} típicamente veía al patriarcado como un "fenómeno transhistórico" {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 122}} anterior o más profunda que otras fuentes de [[opresión]], "no solo la forma de dominación más antigua y universal, sino la forma primaria" y el modelo para todas las demás. {{Sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 123}} La política posterior derivada del feminismo radical varió desde [[feminismo cultural]] a más [[sincretismo | sincrético]] políticas que colocaban cuestiones de [[clase social | clase]], [[economía]], etc. a la par con el patriarcado como fuente de opresión. {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | pp = 117, 141}}


Radical feminists locate the root cause of women's oppression in patriarchal gender relations, as opposed to [[legal system]]s (as in [[liberal feminism]]) or [[class conflict]] (as in [[anarchist feminism]], [[socialist feminism]], and [[Marxist feminism]]).
Las feministas radicales ubican la causa raíz de la opresión de las mujeres en las relaciones patriarcales de género, a diferencia de los [[sistemas legales]] (como en [[feminismo liberal]]) o [[conflicto de clases]] (como en [[feminismo anarquista]] , [[feminismo socialista]] y [[feminismo marxista]]).


== Theory and ideology ==
== Teoría e ideología ==


Radical feminists assert that society is a [[patriarchy]] in which the class of men are the oppressors of the class of women.{{sfn|Echols|1989|p=139}} They propose that the oppression of women is the most fundamental form of oppression, one that has existed since the inception of humanity.{{sfn|Shelley|2000}} As radical feminist [[Ti-Grace Atkinson]] wrote in her foundational piece "Radical Feminism" (1969):
Las feministas radicales afirman que la sociedad es un [[patriarcado]] en el que la clase de hombres son los opresores de la clase de mujeres. {{Sfn | Echols | 1989 | p = 139}} Proponen que la opresión de las mujeres es la más forma fundamental de opresión, una que ha existido desde los inicios de la humanidad. {{sfn | Shelley | 2000}} Como escribió la feminista radical [[Ti-Grace Atkinson]] en su pieza fundamental "Feminismo radical" (1969):


<blockquote>The first dichotomous division of this mass [mankind] is said to have been on the grounds of sex: [[male]] and [[female]]&nbsp;... it was because half the human race bears the burden of the reproductive process and because man, the ‘rational’ animal, had the wit to take advantage of that, that the childbearers, or the 'beasts of burden,' were corralled into a political class: equivocating the biologically contingent burden into a political (or necessary) penalty, thereby modifying these individuals’ definition from the human to the functional, or animal.{{sfn|Atkinson|2000|p=85}}</blockquote>
<blockquote> Se dice que la primera división dicotómica de esta masa [la humanidad] se basó en el sexo: [[masculino]] y [[femenino]] & nbsp; ... fue porque la mitad de la raza humana soporta la carga del proceso reproductivo y debido a que el hombre, el animal `` racional '', tuvo el ingenio para aprovechar eso, los parientes, o las `` bestias de carga '', fueron acorralados en una clase política: confundiendo la carga biológicamente contingente en una política (o necesaria) penalización, modificando así la definición de estos individuos de humano a funcional o animal. {{sfn | Atkinson | 2000 | p = 85}} </blockquote>


Radical feminists argue that, because of patriarchy, women have come to be viewed as the "other<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beauvoir, Simone de (Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand), 1908-1986.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1105756674|title=The Second Sex|date=2011|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-09-959573-1|oclc=1105756674}}</ref>" to the male norm, and as such have been systematically oppressed and marginalized. They further assert that men as a class benefit from the oppression of women. Patriarchal theory is not generally defined as a belief that all men always benefit from the oppression of all women. Rather, it maintains that the primary element of patriarchy is a relationship of dominance, where one party is dominant and exploits the other for the benefit of the former. Radical feminists believe that men (as a class) use social systems and other methods of control to keep women (as well as non-dominant men) suppressed. Radical feminists seek to abolish patriarchy by challenging existing social norms and institutions, and believe that eliminating patriarchy will liberate everyone from an unjust society. Ti-Grace Atkinson maintained that the need for power fuels the male class to continue oppressing the female class, arguing that "the ''need'' men have for the role of oppressor is the source and foundation of all human oppression".{{sfn|Atkinson|2000|p=86}}
Las feministas radicales argumentan que, debido al patriarcado, las mujeres han llegado a ser vistas como el "otro <ref> {{Cite book | last = Beauvoir, Simone de (Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand), 1908-1986. | Url = http: //worldcat.org/oclc/1105756674|title=The Second Sex | date = 2011 | publisher = Vintage Books | isbn = 978-0-09-959573-1 | oclc = 1105756674}} </ref> "para el hombre norma, y ​​como tales han sido sistemáticamente oprimidos y marginados. Afirman además que los hombres como clase se benefician de la opresión de las mujeres. La teoría patriarcal no se define generalmente como la creencia de que todos los hombres siempre se benefician de la opresión de todas las mujeres. Más bien, sostiene que el elemento principal del patriarcado es una relación de dominio, donde una parte es dominante y explota a la otra en beneficio de la primera. Las feministas radicales creen que los hombres (como clase) usan sistemas sociales y otros métodos de control para mantener a las mujeres (así como a los hombres no dominantes) reprimidas. Las feministas radicales buscan abolir el patriarcado desafiando las normas e instituciones sociales existentes, y creen que la eliminación del patriarcado liberará a todos de una sociedad injusta. Ti-Grace Atkinson sostuvo que la necesidad de poder impulsa a la clase masculina a seguir oprimiendo a la clase femenina, argumentando que "la '' necesidad '' que tienen los hombres del papel de opresor es la fuente y el fundamento de toda opresión humana". {{ sfn | Atkinson | 2000 | p = 86}}


The influence of radical-feminist politics on the [[women's liberation movement]] was considerable. [[Redstockings]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Welcome to Redstockings|url=http://redstockings.org/|access-date=2020-09-15|website=redstockings.org}}</ref> co-founder [[Ellen Willis]] wrote in 1984 that radical feminists "got sexual politics recognized as a public issue", created [[second-wave feminism]]'s vocabulary, helped to legalize abortion in the USA, "were the first to demand total equality in the so-called private sphere" ("housework and child care&nbsp;... emotional and sexual needs"), and "created the atmosphere of urgency" that almost led to the passage of the [[Equal Rights Amendment]].{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=118}} The influence of radical feminism can be seen in the adoption of these issues by the [[National Organization for Women]] (NOW), a feminist group that had previously been focused almost entirely on economic issues.{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=138}}
La influencia de la política feminista radical en el [[movimiento de liberación de la mujer]] fue considerable. [[Redstockings]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Welcome to Redstockings|url=http://redstockings.org/|access-date=2020-09-15|website=redstockings.org}}</ref> la cofundadora [[Ellen Willis]] escribió en 1984 que las feministas radicales "consiguieron que la política sexual fuera reconocida como un tema público", crearon el vocabulario de [[el feminismo de segunda ola]], ayudaron a legalizar el aborto en los EE. UU. " el primero en exigir la igualdad total en el llamado ámbito privado "(" las tareas del hogar y el cuidado de los niños & nbsp; ... necesidades emocionales y sexuales "), y" creó el clima de urgencia "que casi propició el paso de la [[Igualdad Enmienda de derechos]]. {{Sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 118}} La influencia del feminismo radical se puede ver en la adopción de estos temas por la [[Organización Nacional de Mujeres]] (NOW), un grupo feminista que anteriormente se había centrado casi por completo en cuestiones económicas. {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 138}}


== Movement ==
== Movimiento ==


=== Roots ===
=== Orígenes ===


Radical feminists in the [[United States]] coined the term [[women's liberation movement]] (WLM). The WLM grew largely due to the influence of the [[civil rights movement]], that had gained momentum in the 1960s, and many of the women who took up the cause of radical feminism had previous experience with radical protest in the struggle against [[racism]]. Chronologically, it can be seen within the context of [[second wave feminism]] that started in the early 1960s.<ref>Sarah Gamble, ed. The Routledge companion to feminism and postfeminism (2001) p. 25</ref> The leading figures of this second wave of feminism included [[Shulamith Firestone]], [[Kathie Sarachild]], [[Ti-Grace Atkinson]], [[Carol Hanisch]], [[Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz|Roxanne Dunbar]], [[Naomi Weisstein]] and [[Judith C. Brown|Judith Brown]]. In the late sixties various  women's groups describing themselves as "radical feminist", such as the UCLA Women's Liberation Front (WLF), offered differing views of radical feminist ideology. UCLA's WLF co-founder Devra Weber recalls, "the radical feminists were opposed to patriarchy, but not necessarily capitalism. In our group at least, they opposed so-called male dominated national liberation struggles".{{sfn|Linden-Ward|Green|1993|p=418}}
Las feministas radicales en los [[Estados Unidos]] acuñaron el término [[movimiento de liberación de la mujer]] (WLM). El WLM creció en gran parte debido a la influencia del [[movimiento de derechos civiles]], que había ganado impulso en la década de 1960, y muchas de las mujeres que tomaron la causa del feminismo radical tenían experiencia previa con la protesta radical en la lucha contra [ [racismo]]. Cronológicamente, puede verse dentro del contexto del [[feminismo de segunda ola]] que comenzó a principios de la década de 1960. <ref> Sarah Gamble, ed. El compañero de Routledge del feminismo y el posfeminismo (2001) p. 25 </ref> Las principales figuras de esta segunda ola de feminismo incluyeron a [[Shulamith Firestone]], [[Kathie Sarachild]], [[Ti-Grace Atkinson]], [[Carol Hanisch]], [[Roxanne Dunbar- Ortiz | Roxanne Dunbar]], [[Naomi Weisstein]] y [[Judith C. Brown | Judith Brown]]. A finales de los años sesenta, varios grupos de mujeres que se describían a sí mismas como "feministas radicales", como el Frente de Liberación de Mujeres de la UCLA (WLF), ofrecían puntos de vista diferentes sobre la ideología feminista radical. La cofundadora de la WLF de UCLA, Devra Weber, recuerda, "las feministas radicales se oponían al patriarcado, pero no necesariamente al capitalismo. En nuestro grupo al menos, se oponían a las llamadas luchas de liberación nacional dominadas por hombres". {{Sfn | Linden-Ward | Green | 1993 | p = 418}}


Radical feminists helped to translate the radical protest for racial equality, in which many had experience, over to the struggle for women's rights. They took up the cause and advocated for a variety of women's issues, including [[abortion rights]], the [[Equal Rights Amendment]], access to credit, and equal pay.{{sfn|Evans|2002}} Many women of color were among the founders of the Women's Liberation Movment ([[Frances M. Beal|Fran Beal]], [[Cellestine Ware,]] [[Toni Cade Bambara]]); however, women of color in general did not participate in the movement due to their conclusion that radical feminists were not addressing "issues of meaning for minority women", [[Black women]] in particular.{{sfn|Linden-Ward|Green|1993|p=434}} After [[consciousness raising]] groups were formed to rally support, second-wave radical feminism began to see an increasing number of women of color participating.
Las feministas radicales ayudaron a traducir la protesta radical por la igualdad racial, en la que muchas tenían experiencia, en la lucha por los derechos de las mujeres. Ellos asumieron la causa y abogaron por una variedad de problemas de mujeres, incluyendo [[derechos de aborto]], la [[Enmienda de Igualdad de Derechos]], acceso al crédito e igualdad de remuneración. {{Sfn | Evans | 2002}} Muchas mujeres de color estuvieron entre los fundadores del Movimiento de Liberación de la Mujer ([[Frances M. Beal | Fran Beal]], [[Cellestine Ware,]] [[Toni Cade Bambara]]); sin embargo, las mujeres de color en general no participaron en el movimiento debido a su conclusión de que las feministas radicales no estaban abordando "cuestiones de significado para las mujeres de minorías", [[mujeres negras]] en particular. {{sfn | Linden-Ward | Green | 1993 | p = 434}} Después de que se formaron [[concienciación]] grupos para reunir apoyo, el feminismo radical de la segunda ola comenzó a ver un número creciente de mujeres de color participando.


In the 1960s, radical feminism emerged within liberal feminist and working-class feminist discussions, first in the United States, then in the United Kingdom and [[Australia]]. Those involved had gradually come to believe that it was not only the [[middle-class]] [[nuclear family]] that oppressed women, but that it was also social movements and organizations that claimed to stand for human liberation, notably the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]], the [[New Left]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] political parties, all of which were male-dominated and male-oriented. In the United States, radical feminism developed as a response to some of the perceived failings of both [[New Left]] organizations such as the [[Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)|Students for a Democratic Society]] (SDS) and feminist organizations such as NOW.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Initially concentrated in big cities like [[New York City|New York]], [[Chicago]], [[Boston]], Washington, DC, and on the West Coast,{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=118}}{{efn|Willis (1984) doesn't mention Chicago, but as early as 1967 Chicago was a major site for consciousness-raising and home of the ''Voice of Women's Liberation Movement''; see Kate Bedford and Ara Wilson [http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/wilson935/chrono1.htm Lesbian Feminist Chronology: 1963-1970] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717042308/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/wilson935/chrono1.htm |date=17 July 2007}}.}} radical feminist groups spread across the country rapidly from 1968 to 1972.
En la década de 1960, el feminismo radical surgió dentro de las discusiones feministas liberales y feministas de la clase trabajadora, primero en los Estados Unidos, luego en el Reino Unido y [[Australia]]. Los involucrados gradualmente habían llegado a creer que no era solo la [[clase media]] [[familia nuclear]] la que oprimía a las mujeres, sino que también eran los movimientos sociales y las organizaciones que afirmaban defender la liberación humana, en particular el [ [Contracultura de la década de 1960 (contracultura)], los partidos políticos [[Nueva Izquierda]] y [[Marxismo]], todos ellos dominados y orientados por hombres. En los Estados Unidos, el feminismo radical se desarrolló como respuesta a algunas de las fallas percibidas de ambas organizaciones de la [[Nueva Izquierda]] como [[Estudiantes por una Sociedad Democrática (organización de 1960) | Estudiantes por una Sociedad Democrática]] (SDS ) y organizaciones feministas como NOW. {{Cita necesaria | fecha = julio de 2008}} Inicialmente concentrada en grandes ciudades como [[Ciudad de Nueva York | Nueva York]], [[Chicago]], [[Boston]], Washington, DC, y en la costa oeste, {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 118}} <ref group = note> Willis (1984) no menciona Chicago, pero ya en 1967 Chicago era un sitio importante para la conciencia. levantamiento y hogar del '' Movimiento Voz del Movimiento de Liberación de la Mujer ''; ver Kate Bedford y Ara Wilson [http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/wilson935/chrono1.htm Lesbian Feminist Chronology: 1963-1970] {{webarchive | url = https: //web.archive.org/ web / 20070717042308 / http: //people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/wilson935/chrono1.htm | date = 17 de julio de 2007}}. </ref> Los grupos feministas radicales se extendieron rápidamente por todo el país de 1968 a 1972.


At the same time parallel trends of thinking developed outside the USA: The Women’s Yearbook<ref>The essay on "Feminist Tendencies" in the Women's Yearbook (Frauenjahrbuch '76), published by the new Frauenoffensive press in Munich and edited by a work group of the Munich Women’s Center in Myra Marx Ferree: Varieties of Feminism German Gender Politics in Global Perspective (2012) p.60 {{ISBN|978-0-8047-5759-1}}</ref> from Munich gives a good sense of early 1970s feminism in West Germany:                                                                   
Al mismo tiempo, se desarrollaron tendencias paralelas de pensamiento fuera de EE. UU.: The Women's Yearbook <ref> El ensayo sobre "Tendencias feministas" en el Women's Yearbook (Frauenjahrbuch '76), publicado por la nueva prensa ofensiva de Frauen en Munich y editado por un grupo de trabajo del Centro de Mujeres de Munich en Myra Marx Ferree: Varieties of Feminism German Gender Politics in Global Perspective (2012) p.60 {{ISBN | 978-0-8047-5759-1}} </ref> de Munich da un buen sentido del feminismo de principios de la década de 1970 en Alemania Occidental:                                                                   
                                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                                          
<blockquote>Their Yearbook essay on behalf of the autonomous feminist movement argued that patriarchy was the oldest and most fundamental relationship of exploitation. Hence the necessity of feminists' separating from men's organizations on the Left, since they would just use women's efforts to support their own goals, in which women's liberation did not count. The editors of Frauenjahrbuch 76 also explicitly distanced themselves from the language of liberalism, arguing that "equal rights define women's oppression as women's disadvantage." They explicitly labeled the equal rights version of feminism as wanting to be like men, vehemently rejecting claims that "women should enter all the male-dominated areas of society. More women in politics! More women in the sciences, etc. . . . Women should be able to do everything that men do." Their position—and that of the autonomous feminists represented in this 1976 yearbook—instead was that: "This principle that 'we want that too' or 'we can do it too' measures emancipation against men and again defines what we want in relationship to men. Its content is conformity to men. . . . Because in this society male characteristics fundamentally have more prestige, recognition and above all more power, we easily fall into the trap of rejecting and devaluing all that is female and admiring and emulating all that is considered male. . . . The battle against the female role must not become the battle for the male role. . . . The feminist demand, which transcends the claim for equal rights, is the claim for self-determination.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferree|first1=Myra Marx|title=Varieties of Feminism: German Gender Politics in Global Perspective|date=2012|page=60|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|location=Redwood City, California|chapter=Women Themselves Will Decide: Autonomous Feminist Mobilization, 1968–1978|isbn=978-0804757591}}</ref><ref>Frauenjahrbuch ’76 p 76-78</ref>
<blockquote> En su ensayo sobre el Anuario en nombre del movimiento feminista autónomo argumentó que el patriarcado era la relación de explotación más antigua y fundamental. De ahí la necesidad de que las feministas se separen de las organizaciones de hombres de izquierda, ya que solo usarían los esfuerzos de las mujeres para apoyar sus propios objetivos, en los que la liberación de las mujeres no contaba. Los editores de Frauenjahrbuch 76 también se distanciaron explícitamente del lenguaje del liberalismo, argumentando que "la igualdad de derechos define la opresión de las mujeres como una desventaja de las mujeres". Calificaron explícitamente la versión de igualdad de derechos del feminismo como querer ser como los hombres, rechazando con vehemencia las afirmaciones de que "las mujeres deberían entrar en todas las áreas de la sociedad dominadas por los hombres. ¡Más mujeres en la política! Más mujeres en las ciencias, etc. ... Mujeres debería poder hacer todo lo que hacen los hombres ". Su posición, y la de las feministas autónomas representadas en este anuario de 1976, fue la siguiente: "Este principio de que 'nosotros también queremos eso' o 'nosotros también podemos hacerlo' mide la emancipación contra los hombres y nuevamente define lo que queremos en relación con hombres. Su contenido es la conformidad con los hombres ... Porque en esta sociedad las características masculinas fundamentalmente tienen más prestigio, reconocimiento y sobre todo más poder, fácilmente caemos en la trampa de rechazar y devaluar todo lo femenino y admirar y emular todo lo que es se considera masculino ... La batalla contra el rol femenino no debe convertirse en la batalla por el rol masculino ... La demanda feminista, que trasciende la reivindicación de la igualdad de derechos, es la reivindicación de la autodeterminación. <ref> { {cite book | last1 = Ferree | first1 = Myra Marx | title = Varieties of Feminism: German Gender Politics in Global Perspective | date = 2012 | page = 60 | publisher = [[Stanford University Press]] | location = Redwood City, California | capítulo = Las propias mujeres decidirán: autónomas Movilización feminista, 1968-1978 | isbn = 978-0804757591}} </ref> <ref> Frauenjahrbuch ’76 p 76-78 </ref>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


Radical feminists introduced the use of [[consciousness raising]] (CR) groups. These groups brought together intellectuals, workers, and middle-class women in developed Western countries to discuss their experiences. During these discussions, women noted a shared and repressive system regardless of their political affiliation or [[social class]]. Based on these discussions, the women drew the conclusion that ending of patriarchy was the most necessary step towards a truly free society. These consciousness-raising sessions allowed early radical feminists to develop a political [[ideology]] based on common experiences women faced with male supremacy. Consciousness raising was extensively used in chapter sub-units of the [[National Organization for Women]] (NOW) during the 1970s. The feminism that emerged from these discussions stood first and foremost for the liberation of women, as women, from the oppression of men in their own lives, as well as men in power. Radical feminism claimed that a totalizing ideology and social formation—''patriarchy'' (government or rule by fathers)—dominated women in the interests of men.
Las feministas radicales introdujeron el uso de grupos [[concientización]] (CR). Estos grupos reunieron a intelectuales, trabajadoras y mujeres de clase media en países occidentales desarrollados para discutir sus experiencias. Durante estas discusiones, las mujeres notaron un sistema compartido y represivo independientemente de su afiliación política o [[clase social]]. Sobre la base de estas discusiones, las mujeres llegaron a la conclusión de que el fin del patriarcado era el paso más necesario hacia una sociedad verdaderamente libre. Estas sesiones de sensibilización permitieron a las primeras feministas radicales desarrollar una ideología política basada en las experiencias comunes que las mujeres enfrentaron con la supremacía masculina. El aumento de la conciencia se utilizó ampliamente en las subunidades de los capítulos de la [[Organización Nacional de Mujeres]] (NOW) durante la década de 1970. El feminismo que surgió de estas discusiones representó ante todo la liberación de las mujeres, como mujeres, de la opresión de los hombres en sus propias vidas, así como de los hombres en el poder. El feminismo radical afirmó que una ideología totalizadora y una formación social - el "patriarcado" (gobierno o gobierno de los padres) - dominaba a las mujeres en interés de los hombres.


===Groups===
===Grupos===
[[File:Redstockings.png|thumb|Logo of the [[Redstockings]]]]
[[Archivo:Redstockings.png|miniaturadeimagen|Logo de las Redstockings]]


Within groups such as [[New York Radical Women]] (1967–1969; not connected to the present-day socialist feminist organization [[Radical Women]]), which Ellen Willis characterized as "the first women's liberation group in New York City",{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=119}} a radical feminist ideology began to emerge. It declared that "the personal is political" and the "sisterhood is powerful";{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=118}} calls to women's activism coined by [[Kathie Sarachild]] and others in the group.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Feminisms Matter: Debates, Theories, Activism|last1=Bromley|first1=Victoria|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2012|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> New York Radical Women fell apart in early 1969 in what came to be known as the "politico-feminist split", with the "politicos" seeing capitalism as the main source of women's oppression, while the "feminists" saw women's oppression in a male supremacy that was "a set of material, institutionalized relations, not just bad attitudes". The feminist side of the split, whose members referred to themselves as "radical feminists",{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=119}} soon constituted the basis of a new organization, [[Redstockings]]. At the same time, Ti-Grace Atkinson led "a radical split-off from NOW", which became known as [[The Feminists]].{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=124}} A third major stance would be articulated by the [[New York Radical Feminists]], founded later in 1969 by [[Shulamith Firestone]] (who broke from the Redstockings) and [[Anne Koedt]].{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=133}}
Dentro de grupos como [[Mujeres radicales de Nueva York]] (1967-1969; sin conexión con la organización feminista socialista actual [[Mujeres radicales]]), que Ellen Willis caracterizó como "el primer grupo de liberación de mujeres en la ciudad de Nueva York ", {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 119}} comenzó a surgir una ideología feminista radical. Declaró que "lo personal es político" y la "hermandad es poderosa"; {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 118}} llamadas al activismo de las mujeres acuñadas por [[Kathie Sarachild]] y otros en el grupo. <Ref > {{Citar libro | título = Los feminismos importan: Debates, teorías, activismo | last1 = Bromley | first1 = Victoria | publisher = University of Toronto Press | año = 2012 | isbn = | ubicación = | páginas =}} </ref> Las mujeres radicales de Nueva York se derrumbaron a principios de 1969 en lo que se conoció como la "división político-feminista", en la que los "políticos" veían al capitalismo como la principal fuente de opresión de las mujeres, mientras que las "feministas" veían la opresión de las mujeres en un hombre supremacía que era "un conjunto de relaciones materiales, institucionalizadas, no sólo malas actitudes". El lado feminista de la división, cuyas miembros se referían a sí mismas como "feministas radicales", {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 119}} pronto constituyó la base de una nueva organización, [[Medias rojas]]. Al mismo tiempo, Ti-Grace Atkinson lideró "una escisión radical de NOW", que se conoció como [[Las feministas]]. {{Sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 124}} Una tercera postura importante sería articulado por las [[Feministas radicales de Nueva York]], fundadas más tarde en 1969 por [[Shulamith Firestone]] (que rompió con los Redstockings) y [[Anne Koedt]]. {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 133} }


During this period, the movement produced "a prodigious output of leaflets, pamphlets, journals, magazine articles, newspaper and radio and TV interviews".{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=118}} Many important feminist works, such as Koedt's essay ''[[The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm]]'' (1970) and [[Kate Millet]]'s book ''[[Sexual Politics]]'' (1970), emerged during this time and in this [[Social environment|milieu]].
Durante este período, el movimiento realizó "una producción prodigiosa de folletos, panfletos, revistas, artículos de revistas, periódicos y entrevistas de radio y televisión". {{Sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 118}} Muchas obras feministas importantes, como la de Koedt y su ensayo '' [[El mito del orgasmo vaginal]] '' (1970) y el libro de [[Kate Millet]] '' [[Política sexual]] '' (1970), surgieron durante este tiempo y en este [ [Entorno social | medio]].


=== Ideology emerges and diverges ===
=== La ideología emerge y diverge ===
At the beginning of this period, "[[heterosexuality]] was more or less an unchallenged assumption". Among radical feminists, it was widely held that, thus far, the sexual freedoms gained in the [[sexual revolution]] of the 1960s, in particular, the decreasing emphasis on [[monogamy]], had been largely gained by men at women's expense.{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=121}} This assumption of heterosexuality would soon be challenged by the rise of [[political lesbianism]], closely associated with Atkinson and The Feminists.{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=131}}
Al comienzo de este período, "[[la heterosexualidad]] era más o menos una suposición indiscutida". Entre las feministas radicales, se sostenía ampliamente que, hasta ahora, las libertades sexuales obtenidas en la [[revolución sexual]] de la década de 1960, en particular, el énfasis cada vez menor en la [[monogamia]], habían sido ganadas en gran medida por los hombres en las mujeres. {{sfn | Willis | 1984 | p = 121}} Esta suposición de heterosexualidad pronto sería desafiada por el surgimiento del [[lesbianismo político]], estrechamente asociado con Atkinson y The Feminists.{{sfn|Willis|1984|p=131}}


Redstockings and The Feminists were both radical feminist organizations, but held rather distinct views. Most members of Redstockings held to a [[materialism|materialist]] and anti-[[psychologism|psychologistic]] view. They viewed men's oppression of women as ongoing and deliberate, holding individual men responsible for this oppression, viewing institutions and systems (including the family) as mere vehicles of conscious male intent, and rejecting psychologistic explanations of female submissiveness as blaming women for collaboration in their own oppression. They held to a view—which Willis would later describe as "neo-[[Maoism|Maoist]]"—that it would be possible to unite all or virtually all women, as a class, to confront this oppression by personally confronting men.{{sfn|Willis|1984|pp=124—128}}
Redstockings and The Feminists were both radical feminist organizations, but held rather distinct views. Most members of Redstockings held to a [[materialism|materialist]] and anti-[[psychologism|psychologistic]] view. They viewed men's oppression of women as ongoing and deliberate, holding individual men responsible for this oppression, viewing institutions and systems (including the family) as mere vehicles of conscious male intent, and rejecting psychologistic explanations of female submissiveness as blaming women for collaboration in their own oppression. They held to a view—which Willis would later describe as "neo-[[Maoism|Maoist]]"—that it would be possible to unite all or virtually all women, as a class, to confront this oppression by personally confronting men.{{sfn|Willis|1984|pp=124—128}}


[[File:Ellen willis.png|thumb|[[Ellen Willis]]]]
[[Archivo:Ellen Willis.png|miniaturadeimagen]]


The Feminists held a more [[idealism|idealistic]], psychologistic, and [[utopianism|utopian]] philosophy, with a greater emphasis on "[[sex role]]s", seeing [[sexism]] as rooted in "complementary patterns of male and female behavior". They placed more emphasis on institutions, seeing marriage, family, prostitution, and heterosexuality as all existing to perpetuate the "sex-role system". They saw all of these as institutions to be destroyed. Within the group, there were further disagreements, such as Koedt's viewing the institution of "normal" sexual intercourse as being focused mainly on male sexual or erotic pleasure, while Atkinson viewed it mainly in terms of reproduction. In contrast to the Redstockings, The Feminists generally considered genitally focused sexuality to be inherently male. [[Ellen Willis]], the Redstockings co-founder, would later write that insofar as the Redstockings considered abandoning heterosexual activity, they saw it as a "bitter price" they "might have to pay for [their] militance", whereas The Feminists embraced [[separatist feminism]] as a strategy.{{sfn|Willis|1984|pp=130–132}}
Las Feministas tenían una filosofía más [[idealista | idealista]], psicologista y [[utopía | utópica]], con un mayor énfasis en "[[roles sexuales]] s", viendo el [[sexismo]] como enraizado en " patrones complementarios de comportamiento masculino y femenino ". Pusieron más énfasis en las instituciones, viendo el matrimonio, la familia, la prostitución y la heterosexualidad como todos existentes para perpetuar el "sistema de roles sexuales". Vieron a todos ellos como instituciones a destruir. Dentro del grupo, hubo más desacuerdos, como que Koedt consideraba que la institución de las relaciones sexuales "normales" se centraba principalmente en el placer sexual o erótico masculino, mientras que Atkinson lo veía principalmente en términos de reproducción. A diferencia de las medias rojas, las feministas generalmente consideraban que la sexualidad centrada en los genitales era inherentemente masculina. [[Ellen Willis]], la cofundadora de Redstockings, escribiría más tarde que en la medida en que los Redstockings consideraban abandonar la actividad heterosexual, lo veían como un "precio amargo" que "podrían tener que pagar por [su] militancia", mientras que Las feministas adoptaron el [[feminismo separatista]] como estrategia.{{sfn|Willis|1984|pp=130–132}}


The New York Radical Feminists (NYRF) took a more psychologistic (and even [[biological determinism|biologically determinist]]) line. They argued that men dominated women not so much for material benefits as for the ego satisfaction intrinsic in domination. Similarly, they rejected the Redstockings view that women submitted only out of necessity or The Feminists' implicit view that they submitted out of cowardice, but instead argued that [[social conditioning]] simply led most women to accept a submissive role as "right and natural".{{sfn|Willis|1984|pp=133–134}}
Las Feministas Radicales de Nueva York (NYRF) adoptaron una línea más psicologista (e incluso [[determinismo biológico | biológicamente determinista]]). Argumentaron que los hombres dominaban a las mujeres no tanto por beneficios materiales como por la satisfacción del ego intrínseca a la dominación. De manera similar, rechazaron la opinión de Redstockings de que las mujeres se sometían solo por necesidad o la opinión implícita de Las Feministas de que se sometían por cobardía, pero en cambio argumentaron que [[el condicionamiento social]] simplemente llevó a la mayoría de las mujeres a aceptar un papel sumiso como "correcto y natural".{{sfn|Willis|1984|pp=133–134}}


=== Forms of action ===
=== Forms of action ===
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[[File:MacKinnon.8May.CambridgeMA.png|thumb|[[Catharine MacKinnon]]]]
[[File:MacKinnon.8May.CambridgeMA.png|thumb|[[Catharine MacKinnon]]]]


Radical feminists, notably [[Catharine MacKinnon]], charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological, and/or economic [[coercion]] of the women who perform and model in it. This is said to be true even when the women are presented as enjoying themselves.{{efn|MacKinnon (1989): "Sex forced on real women so that it can be sold at a profit to be forced on other real women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into things to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and this presented as the nature of women; the coercion that is visible and the coercion that has become invisible—this and more grounds the feminist concern with pornography."{{sfn|MacKinnon|1989|p=196}}}}<ref>MacKinnon, Catherine A. (1984). "Not a moral issue". ''Yale Law and Policy Review'' 2:321-345.</ref><ref name="pbs.org">{{Cite episode| title = A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)| series = [[Think Tank]]|network= PBS| year = 1995| url = https://www.pbs.org/thinktank/transcript215.html}}</ref><ref name=stanford-shrage>Shrage, Laurie (13 July 2007). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-sex-markets/#Por "Feminist Perspectives on Sex Markets: Pornography"]. In ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''.</ref> It is also argued that much of what is shown in pornography is abusive by its very nature. [[Gail Dines]] holds that pornography, exemplified by [[Point of view pornography|gonzo pornography]], is becoming increasingly violent and that women who perform in pornography are brutalized in the process of its production.{{efn|Dines (2008): "The porn that makes most of the money for the industry is actually the gonzo, body-punishing variety that shows women's bodies being physically stretched to the limit, humiliated and degraded. Even porn industry people commented in a recent article in Adult Video News, that gonzo porn is taking its toll on the women, and the turnover is high because they can't stand the brutal acts on the body for very long."<ref>{{cite web| last1 = Dines| first1 = Gail| title = Penn, Porn and Me| work = [[CounterPunch]]| date = 23 June 2008| url = http://www.counterpunch.org/dines06232008.html| url-status = dead| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090330143944/http://www.counterpunch.org/dines06232008.html| archivedate = 30 March 2009}}</ref>}}<ref>Dines, Gail. (24 March 2007). "[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5003155114018800220# Pornography & Pop Culture: Putting the Text in Context]", ''Pornography & Pop Culture - Rethinking Theory, Reframing Activism''. Wheelock College, Boston, 24 March 2007.</ref>
Radical feminists, notably [[Catharine MacKinnon]], charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological, and/or economic [[coercion]] of the women who perform and model in it. This is said to be true even when the women are presented as enjoying themselves.<ref group=note>MacKinnon (1989): "Sex forced on real women so that it can be sold at a profit to be forced on other real women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into things to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and this presented as the nature of women; the coercion that is visible and the coercion that has become invisible—this and more grounds the feminist concern with pornography." See: MacKinnon 1989, p. 196</ref><ref>MacKinnon, Catherine A. (1984). "Not a moral issue". ''Yale Law and Policy Review'' 2:321-345.</ref><ref name="pbs.org">{{Cite episode| title = A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)| series = [[Think Tank]]|network= PBS| year = 1995| url = https://www.pbs.org/thinktank/transcript215.html}}</ref><ref name=stanford-shrage>Shrage, Laurie (13 July 2007). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-sex-markets/#Por "Feminist Perspectives on Sex Markets: Pornography"]. In ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''.</ref> It is also argued that much of what is shown in pornography is abusive by its very nature. [[Gail Dines]] holds that pornography, exemplified by [[Point of view pornography|gonzo pornography]], is becoming increasingly violent and that women who perform in pornography are brutalized in the process of its production.<ref group=note>Dines (2008): "The porn that makes most of the money for the industry is actually the gonzo, body-punishing variety that shows women's bodies being physically stretched to the limit, humiliated and degraded. Even porn industry people commented in a recent article in Adult Video News, that gonzo porn is taking its toll on the women, and the turnover is high because they can't stand the brutal acts on the body for very long." See: {{cite web| last1 = Dines| first1 = Gail| title = Penn, Porn and Me| work = [[CounterPunch]]| date = 23 June 2008| url = http://www.counterpunch.org/dines06232008.html| url-status = dead| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090330143944/http://www.counterpunch.org/dines06232008.html| archivedate = 30 March 2009}}</ref><ref>Dines, Gail. (24 March 2007). "[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5003155114018800220# Pornography & Pop Culture: Putting the Text in Context]", ''Pornography & Pop Culture - Rethinking Theory, Reframing Activism''. Wheelock College, Boston, 24 March 2007.</ref>


Radical feminists point to the testimony of well known participants in pornography, such as [[Traci Lords]] and [[Linda Boreman]], and argue that most female performers are coerced into pornography, either by somebody else, or by an unfortunate set of circumstances. The feminist anti-pornography movement was galvanized by the publication of ''Ordeal'', in which Linda Boreman (who under the name of "Linda Lovelace" had starred in ''[[Deep Throat (film)|Deep Throat]]'') stated that she had been beaten, raped, and [[pimp]]ed by her husband [[Chuck Traynor]], and that Traynor had forced her at gunpoint to make scenes in ''Deep Throat'', as well as forcing her, by use of both physical violence against Boreman as well as emotional abuse and outright threats of violence, to make other pornographic films. Dworkin, MacKinnon, and Women Against Pornography issued public statements of support for Boreman, and worked with her in public appearances and speeches.<ref>Brownmiller, ''In Our Time'', p. 337.</ref>
Radical feminists point to the testimony of well known participants in pornography, such as [[Traci Lords]] and [[Linda Boreman]], and argue that most female performers are coerced into pornography, either by somebody else, or by an unfortunate set of circumstances. The feminist anti-pornography movement was galvanized by the publication of ''Ordeal'', in which Linda Boreman (who under the name of "Linda Lovelace" had starred in ''[[Deep Throat (film)|Deep Throat]]'') stated that she had been beaten, raped, and [[pimp]]ed by her husband [[Chuck Traynor]], and that Traynor had forced her at gunpoint to make scenes in ''Deep Throat'', as well as forcing her, by use of both physical violence against Boreman as well as emotional abuse and outright threats of violence, to make other pornographic films. Dworkin, MacKinnon, and Women Against Pornography issued public statements of support for Boreman, and worked with her in public appearances and speeches.<ref>Brownmiller, ''In Our Time'', p. 337.</ref>
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Some radical feminists, such as [[Catharine MacKinnon]] and [[John Stoltenberg]] have supported the notion that [[transwomen]] are women, which has been described as ''trans-inclusive'' feminism,<ref name="Abeni">{{cite web|last1=Abeni|first1=Cleis|title=New History Project Unearths Radical Feminism's Trans-Affirming Roots|url=http://www.advocate.com/think-trans/2016/2/03/new-history-project-unearths-radical-feminisms-trans-affirming-roots|accessdate=10 June 2017|work=The Advocate|date=3 February 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name=TransAdvocate>{{Cite web|last1=Williams|first1=Cristan|title=Sex, Gender, and Sexuality: The TransAdvocate interviews Catharine A. MacKinnon|url=http://www.transadvocate.com/sex-gender-and-sexuality-the-transadvocate-interviews-catharine-a-mackinnon_n_15037.htm|website=TransAdvocate|date=April 7, 2015|accessdate=14 January 2016}}</ref><ref name=WilliamsTSQ>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=Cristan|title=Radical Inclusion: Recounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism|journal=Transgender Studies Quarterly|date=May 2016|volume=3|issue=1–2|doi=10.1215/23289252-3334463|issn=2328-9252}}</ref> while the vast majority, most notably [[Mary Daly]], [[Janice Raymond]], [[Robin Morgan]], [[Germaine Greer]], [[Sheila Jeffreys]], [[Julie Bindel]], and [[Robert W. Jensen|Robert Jensen]], have argued that the transgender movement perpetuates patriarchal gender norms and is incompatible with radical-feminist ideology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Mary |title=Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism |date=1978 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |location=Boston |edition=1990 |isbn=978-0807015100 |lccn= 78053790 |url=https://archive.org/details/gynecologymetae000daly}}</ref><ref name="newyorker"/><ref name=Pomerleau>{{cite book|last1=Pomerleau|first1=Clark A.|title=Califia Women: Feminist Education against Sexism, Classism, and Racism|date=2013|pages=28–29|chapter=1|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|location=Austin, Texas|isbn=978-0292752948}}</ref><ref name=Jensen2015>{{cite web|last1=Jensen|first1=Robert|title=A transgender problem for diversity politics|url=http://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/latest-columns/20150605-robert-jensen-a-transgender-problem-for-diversity-politics.ece|accessdate=November 20, 2015|work=The Dallas Morning News|date=June 5, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Forbes">{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/peterjreilly/2013/06/15/cathy-brennan-on-radfem-2013/ | title=Cathy Brennan On Radfem 2013 | work=Forbes | date=15 June 2013|first1= Peter J.|last1=Reilly}}</ref>
Some radical feminists, such as [[Catharine MacKinnon]] and [[John Stoltenberg]] have supported the notion that [[transwomen]] are women, which has been described as ''trans-inclusive'' feminism,<ref name="Abeni">{{cite web|last1=Abeni|first1=Cleis|title=New History Project Unearths Radical Feminism's Trans-Affirming Roots|url=http://www.advocate.com/think-trans/2016/2/03/new-history-project-unearths-radical-feminisms-trans-affirming-roots|accessdate=10 June 2017|work=The Advocate|date=3 February 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name=TransAdvocate>{{Cite web|last1=Williams|first1=Cristan|title=Sex, Gender, and Sexuality: The TransAdvocate interviews Catharine A. MacKinnon|url=http://www.transadvocate.com/sex-gender-and-sexuality-the-transadvocate-interviews-catharine-a-mackinnon_n_15037.htm|website=TransAdvocate|date=April 7, 2015|accessdate=14 January 2016}}</ref><ref name=WilliamsTSQ>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=Cristan|title=Radical Inclusion: Recounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism|journal=Transgender Studies Quarterly|date=May 2016|volume=3|issue=1–2|doi=10.1215/23289252-3334463|issn=2328-9252}}</ref> while the vast majority, most notably [[Mary Daly]], [[Janice Raymond]], [[Robin Morgan]], [[Germaine Greer]], [[Sheila Jeffreys]], [[Julie Bindel]], and [[Robert W. Jensen|Robert Jensen]], have argued that the transgender movement perpetuates patriarchal gender norms and is incompatible with radical-feminist ideology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Mary |title=Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism |date=1978 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |location=Boston |edition=1990 |isbn=978-0807015100 |lccn= 78053790 |url=https://archive.org/details/gynecologymetae000daly}}</ref><ref name="newyorker"/><ref name=Pomerleau>{{cite book|last1=Pomerleau|first1=Clark A.|title=Califia Women: Feminist Education against Sexism, Classism, and Racism|date=2013|pages=28–29|chapter=1|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|location=Austin, Texas|isbn=978-0292752948}}</ref><ref name=Jensen2015>{{cite web|last1=Jensen|first1=Robert|title=A transgender problem for diversity politics|url=http://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/latest-columns/20150605-robert-jensen-a-transgender-problem-for-diversity-politics.ece|accessdate=November 20, 2015|work=The Dallas Morning News|date=June 5, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Forbes">{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/peterjreilly/2013/06/15/cathy-brennan-on-radfem-2013/ | title=Cathy Brennan On Radfem 2013 | work=Forbes | date=15 June 2013|first1= Peter J.|last1=Reilly}}</ref>


Those who exclude trans women from womanhood or women's spaces refer to themselves as ''gender critical''<ref name="Goldberg 2015">{{cite web |last1=Goldberg |first1=Michelle |title=The Trans Women Who Say That Trans Women Aren't Women |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2015/12/gender-critical-trans-women-the-apostates-of-the-trans-rights-movement.html |accessdate=12 April 2019 |magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Flaherty 2018">{{cite web |last1=Flaherty |first1=Colleen |title='TERF' War |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/29/philosophers-object-journals-publication-terf-reference-some-feminists-it-really |accessdate=12 April 2019 |website=[[Inside Higher Ed]] |date=29 August 2018}}</ref> and are referred to by others as trans-exclusionary.<ref name="Compton">{{cite web |last1=Compton |first1=Julie |title='Pro-lesbian' or 'trans-exclusionary'? Old animosities boil into public view |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/pro-lesbian-or-trans-exclusionary-old-animosities-boil-public-view-n958456 |accessdate=12 April 2019 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=14 January 2019}}</ref> Radical feminists in particular who exclude trans women are often referred to as "[[Feminist views on transgender topics#The term "TERF"|trans-exclusionary radical feminists]]" or "[[TERF]]s",<ref name="Flaherty 2018" /><ref name="Goldberg 2015" /><ref name="Compton"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Cristan |date=2016-05-01 |title=Radical InclusionRecounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism |journal=[[Transgender Studies Quarterly]] |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1–2 |pages=254–258 |doi=10.1215/23289252-3334463 |issn=2328-9252}}</ref> an acronym to which they object,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2015/02/are-you-now-or-have-you-ever-been-terf|title=Are you now or have you ever been a TERF? |last1=MacDonald |first1=Terry |date=16 February 2015 |magazine=[[New Statesman|New Statesman America]]}}</ref> say is inaccurate (citing, for example, their inclusion of [[trans men]] as women),<ref name="Flaherty 2018" /> and argue is a [[pejorative|slur]] or even [[hate speech]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Michelle |title=What Is a Woman? |journal=[[The New Yorker]] |date=4 August 2014 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/08/04/woman-2 |accessdate=November 20, 2015 |quote=TERF stands for “trans-exclusionary radical feminist.” The term can be useful for making a distinction with radical feminists who do not share the same position, but those at whom it is directed consider it a slur.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.feministcurrent.com/2017/09/21/terf-isnt-slur-hate-speech/ |title='TERF' isn't just a slur, it's hate speech |last1=Murphy |first1=Meghan E. |publisher=Feminist Current |date=September 21, 2017 |quote=If “TERF” were a term that conveyed something purposeful, accurate, or useful, beyond simply smearing, silencing, insulting, discriminating against, or inciting violence, it could perhaps be considered neutral or harmless. But because the term itself is politically dishonest and misrepresentative, and because its intent is to vilify, disparage, and intimidate, as well as to incite and justify violence against women, it is dangerous and indeed qualifies as a form of hate speech. While women have tried to point out that this would be the end result of “TERF” before, they were, as usual, dismissed. We now have undeniable proof that painting women with this brush leads to real, physical violence. If you didn’t believe us before, you now have no excuse.}}</ref> These feminists argue that because trans women are [[Sex assignment|assigned male at birth]], they are accorded corresponding privileges in society, and even if they choose to present as women, the fact that they have a choice in this sets them apart from people assigned female. Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary radical feminists in particular say that the difference in behavior between men and women is the result of socialization. [[Lierre Keith]] describes femininity as "a set of behaviors that are, in essence, ritualized submission",{{efn|Keith (2013): "Female socialization is a process of psychologically constraining and breaking girls—otherwise known as 'grooming'—to create a class of compliant victims. Femininity is a set of behaviors that are, in essence, ritualized submission."<ref name=Keith21June2013>{{cite web | url=http://www.counterpunch.org/2013/06/21/55123/ | title=The Emperor's New Penis | magazine=[[CounterPunch]] | date=21–23 June 2013 | author=Keith, Lierre}}</ref>}}<ref name="newyorker"/> and hence, gender is not an identity but a caste position, and [[Gender identity|gender-identity]] politics are an obstacle to gender abolition.<ref name="newyorker" /><ref name="Forbes" /> [[Julie Bindel]] argued in 2008 that Iran carries out the highest number of sex-change operations in the world, because "surgery is an attempt to keep [[gender stereotypes]] intact", and that "it is precisely this idea that certain distinct behaviours are appropriate for males and females that underlies feminist criticism of the phenomenon of 'transgenderism'."<ref>[https://idgeofreason.wordpress.com/2013/09/12/2008-statement-from-julie-bindel/ "2008 Statement from Julie Bindel"], courtesy of idgeofreason.wordpress.com.</ref><ref name="CSOTP">{{cite web|last1=Grew |first1=Tony |title=Celebs split over trans protest at Stonewall Awards |url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-9523.html |work=[[PinkNews]] |date=7 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629093225/http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-9523.html |archivedate=June 29, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the BBC in 2014, there are no reliable figures regarding gender-reassignment operations in Iran.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hamedani|first1=Ali|title=The gay people pushed to change their gender|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29832690|work=BBC News|date=5 November 2014|quote=There is no reliable information on the number of gender reassignment operations carried out in Iran.}}</ref>
Those who exclude trans women from womanhood or women's spaces refer to themselves as ''gender critical''<ref name="Goldberg 2015">{{cite web |last1=Goldberg |first1=Michelle |title=The Trans Women Who Say That Trans Women Aren't Women |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2015/12/gender-critical-trans-women-the-apostates-of-the-trans-rights-movement.html |accessdate=12 April 2019 |magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Flaherty 2018">{{cite web |last1=Flaherty |first1=Colleen |title='TERF' War |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/29/philosophers-object-journals-publication-terf-reference-some-feminists-it-really |accessdate=12 April 2019 |website=[[Inside Higher Ed]] |date=29 August 2018}}</ref> and are referred to by others as trans-exclusionary.<ref name="Compton">{{cite web |last1=Compton |first1=Julie |title='Pro-lesbian' or 'trans-exclusionary'? Old animosities boil into public view |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/pro-lesbian-or-trans-exclusionary-old-animosities-boil-public-view-n958456 |accessdate=12 April 2019 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=14 January 2019}}</ref> Radical feminists in particular who exclude trans women are often referred to as "[[Feminist views on transgender topics#The term "TERF"|trans-exclusionary radical feminists]]" or "[[TERF]]s",<ref name="Flaherty 2018" /><ref name="Goldberg 2015" /><ref name="Compton"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Cristan |date=2016-05-01 |title=Radical InclusionRecounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism |journal=[[Transgender Studies Quarterly]] |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1–2 |pages=254–258 |doi=10.1215/23289252-3334463 |issn=2328-9252}}</ref> an acronym to which they object,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2015/02/are-you-now-or-have-you-ever-been-terf|title=Are you now or have you ever been a TERF? |last1=MacDonald |first1=Terry |date=16 February 2015 |magazine=[[New Statesman|New Statesman America]]}}</ref> say is inaccurate (citing, for example, their inclusion of [[trans men]] as women),<ref name="Flaherty 2018" /> and argue is a [[pejorative|slur]] or even [[hate speech]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Michelle |title=What Is a Woman? |journal=[[The New Yorker]] |date=4 August 2014 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/08/04/woman-2 |accessdate=November 20, 2015 |quote=TERF stands for “trans-exclusionary radical feminist.” The term can be useful for making a distinction with radical feminists who do not share the same position, but those at whom it is directed consider it a slur.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.feministcurrent.com/2017/09/21/terf-isnt-slur-hate-speech/ |title='TERF' isn't just a slur, it's hate speech |last1=Murphy |first1=Meghan E. |publisher=Feminist Current |date=September 21, 2017 |quote=If “TERF” were a term that conveyed something purposeful, accurate, or useful, beyond simply smearing, silencing, insulting, discriminating against, or inciting violence, it could perhaps be considered neutral or harmless. But because the term itself is politically dishonest and misrepresentative, and because its intent is to vilify, disparage, and intimidate, as well as to incite and justify violence against women, it is dangerous and indeed qualifies as a form of hate speech. While women have tried to point out that this would be the end result of “TERF” before, they were, as usual, dismissed. We now have undeniable proof that painting women with this brush leads to real, physical violence. If you didn’t believe us before, you now have no excuse.}}</ref> These feminists argue that because trans women are [[Sex assignment|assigned male at birth]], they are accorded corresponding privileges in society, and even if they choose to present as women, the fact that they have a choice in this sets them apart from people assigned female. Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary radical feminists in particular say that the difference in behavior between men and women is the result of socialization. [[Lierre Keith]] describes femininity as "a set of behaviors that are, in essence, ritualized submission",<ref group=note>Keith (2013): "Female socialization is a process of psychologically constraining and breaking girls—otherwise known as 'grooming'—to create a class of compliant victims. Femininity is a set of behaviors that are, in essence, ritualized submission." See: {{cite web | url=http://www.counterpunch.org/2013/06/21/55123/ | title=The Emperor's New Penis | magazine=[[CounterPunch]] | date=21–23 June 2013 | author=Keith, Lierre}}</ref><ref name="newyorker"/> and hence, gender is not an identity but a caste position, and [[Gender identity|gender-identity]] politics are an obstacle to gender abolition.<ref name="newyorker" /><ref name="Forbes" /> [[Julie Bindel]] argued in 2008 that Iran carries out the highest number of sex-change operations in the world, because "surgery is an attempt to keep [[gender stereotypes]] intact", and that "it is precisely this idea that certain distinct behaviours are appropriate for males and females that underlies feminist criticism of the phenomenon of 'transgenderism'."<ref>[https://idgeofreason.wordpress.com/2013/09/12/2008-statement-from-julie-bindel/ "2008 Statement from Julie Bindel"], courtesy of idgeofreason.wordpress.com.</ref><ref name="CSOTP">{{cite web|last1=Grew |first1=Tony |title=Celebs split over trans protest at Stonewall Awards |url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-9523.html |work=[[PinkNews]] |date=7 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629093225/http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-9523.html |archivedate=June 29, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the BBC in 2014, there are no reliable figures regarding gender-reassignment operations in Iran.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hamedani|first1=Ali|title=The gay people pushed to change their gender|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29832690|work=BBC News|date=5 November 2014|quote=There is no reliable information on the number of gender reassignment operations carried out in Iran.}}</ref>


In ''[[The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male]]'' (1979), the lesbian radical feminist [[Janice Raymond]] argued that "transsexuals&nbsp;... reduce the female form to artefact, appropriating this body for themselves".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male|last1=Raymond|first1=Janice G.|date=1979|publisher=Teachers College Press|isbn=978-0807762721|location=New York|p=xx}}</ref> In ''The Whole Woman'' (1999), [[Germaine Greer]] wrote that largely male governments "recognise as women men who believe that they are women&nbsp;... because [those governments] see women not as another sex but as a non-sex"; she continued that if uterus-and-ovaries transplants were a mandatory part of sex-change operations, the latter "would disappear overnight".<ref name="Greer2009">{{cite book|url=|title=The Whole Woman|author=Germaine Greer|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=1999|isbn=978-0-307-56113-8|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ymJArTm2CAIC&pg=PT101 101]}}</ref> [[Sheila Jeffreys]] argued in 1997 that "the vast majority of transsexuals still subscribe to the traditional [[stereotype]] of women" and that by [[transitioning (transgender)|transitioning]] they are "constructing a conservative fantasy of what women should be&nbsp;... an essence of womanhood which is deeply insulting and restrictive."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jeffreys|first1=Sheila|year=1997|title=Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective|url=http://www.rapereliefshelter.bc.ca/sites/default/files/imce/Transgender%20Activism%20A%20Lesbian%20Feminist%20Perspective%20by%20Sheila%20Jeffreys%2C%20Journal%20of%20Lesbian%20Studies%201997%5B1%5D.pdf|journal=The Journal of Lesbian Studies|doi=10.1300/J155v01n03_03}}</ref> In ''Gender Hurts'' (2014), she referred to [[sex reassignment surgery]] as "self-mutilation",{{sfn|Jeffries|2014|pp=68–71}} and used pronouns that refer to biological sex. Jeffreys argued that feminists need to know "the biological sex of those who claim to be women and promote prejudicial versions of what constitutes womanhood", and that the "use by men of feminine pronouns conceals the masculine privilege bestowed upon them by virtue of having been placed in and brought up in the male sex caste".{{sfn|Jeffries|2014|p=9}}<ref name="newyorker" />
In ''[[The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male]]'' (1979), the lesbian radical feminist [[Janice Raymond]] argued that "transsexuals&nbsp;... reduce the female form to artefact, appropriating this body for themselves".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male|last1=Raymond|first1=Janice G.|date=1979|publisher=Teachers College Press|isbn=978-0807762721|location=New York|p=xx}}</ref> In ''The Whole Woman'' (1999), [[Germaine Greer]] wrote that largely male governments "recognise as women men who believe that they are women&nbsp;... because [those governments] see women not as another sex but as a non-sex"; she continued that if uterus-and-ovaries transplants were a mandatory part of sex-change operations, the latter "would disappear overnight".<ref name="Greer2009">{{cite book|url=|title=The Whole Woman|author=Germaine Greer|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=1999|isbn=978-0-307-56113-8|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ymJArTm2CAIC&pg=PT101 101]}}</ref> [[Sheila Jeffreys]] argued in 1997 that "the vast majority of transsexuals still subscribe to the traditional [[stereotype]] of women" and that by [[transitioning (transgender)|transitioning]] they are "constructing a conservative fantasy of what women should be&nbsp;... an essence of womanhood which is deeply insulting and restrictive."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jeffreys|first1=Sheila|year=1997|title=Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective|url=http://www.rapereliefshelter.bc.ca/sites/default/files/imce/Transgender%20Activism%20A%20Lesbian%20Feminist%20Perspective%20by%20Sheila%20Jeffreys%2C%20Journal%20of%20Lesbian%20Studies%201997%5B1%5D.pdf|journal=The Journal of Lesbian Studies|doi=10.1300/J155v01n03_03}}</ref> In ''Gender Hurts'' (2014), she referred to [[sex reassignment surgery]] as "self-mutilation",{{sfn|Jeffries|2014|pp=68–71}} and used pronouns that refer to biological sex. Jeffreys argued that feminists need to know "the biological sex of those who claim to be women and promote prejudicial versions of what constitutes womanhood", and that the "use by men of feminine pronouns conceals the masculine privilege bestowed upon them by virtue of having been placed in and brought up in the male sex caste".{{sfn|Jeffries|2014|p=9}}<ref name="newyorker" />
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== Notes ==
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
<references group=note/>


== References ==
== References ==
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ediciones